kimkat2278k A Welsh Grammar for Schools (1907). E. Anwyl, M.A., Oxon. (1866-1914; Oedran / Edat / Age: 48) Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Part 1: Accidence (Ffurfiant) pp 0-79 (Fourth Edition / Pedwerydd Argraffiad 1907. First Edition / Argraffiad Cyntaf 1897). Part 2: Syntax (Cystrawen) pp 81-187 (Second Edition / Ail Argraffiad 1907; First Edition / Argraffiad Cyntaf 1899)

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Gwefan Cymru-Catalonia El Web de Gal·les i Catalunya The Wales-Catalonia Website A Welsh Grammar for Schools (1907) E. Anwyl, M.A., Oxon Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth Part 1: Accidence pp 0-79 Part 2: Syntax pp 81-187 Y Llyfr Ymwelwyr / El Llibre de Visitants / The Guestbook: http://pub5.bravenet.com/guestbook/391211408/ Beth sy’n newydd yn y wefan hon?

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PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES
EDITED BY E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Oxon.
Professor of Classics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the University of Birmingham
WELSH
Part 1: Accidence* pp 0-79
Part 2: Syntax pp 81-187

(*Inflexional Morphology – ways in which words change through inflexion – e.g. to singular forms contrasted with plural forms, or the present tense contrasted with the past tense, etc)

(delwedd F7177b) (tudalen a000)

(delwedd F7177c) (tudalen clawr)	Parallel Grammar Series WELSH GRAMMAR Accidence
(delwedd F7178) (tudalen a001)	1 Parallel Grammar Series A Welsh Grammar for Schools A Welsh Grammar for Schools Based on the Principles and Requirements of the Grammatical Society by E. Anwyl, M.A., Oxon Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth Late Classics Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford Vice-Chairman of the Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education Part 1 - Accidence Third Edition London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Ltd New York: The Macmillan Co. 1907
(delwedd F7179) (tudalen a002)	a2The PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES now includes the following Volumes:— GREEK GRAMMAR, hy Prol E. A. Sonkenschein, M.A. Oxon., 4a. 6d. Or separately: Accidenee, 2s.; Syntax 2s. 6d. Exercises in Greek Accidence, by J. E. Sandys, Litt.D., Fellow and Tutor of St. John's College, and Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. LATIN GRAMMAR, by Prof. E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. Oxon., 3s. Or separately: Accidence, Is. 6d.; Syntax Is. 6d. First Latin Reader and Writer (with Supplement), Is. 6d. Second Latin Reader and Writer, is. 6d. Third Latin Reader and Writer, 2s. (All by C. I. Dix, M.A. Oxon., Assistant Master at the Oratory School, Birmingham.) Fourth Latin Reader and Writer, by J. C. Nicol, M.A. Cantab., late Fellow of Trinity Hall, Head Master of Portsmouth Grammar School: and the Rev. J. Huntbb Smith, M.A. Oxon., First Assistant Master in King Edward's School, Birmingham, 2s. Keys to First, Second and Third Latin Readers and Writers by 0. M. Ddc, M.A. Oxon. (Supplied only to Teachers, on personal application to the Publishers, 68., 4s., and 5s. net, respectively.) ENGLISH GRAMMAR, by J. Hall, M.A., Head Master of the Hulme Grammar School, Manchester; A. J. Coopeb, F.G.P., late Head Mistress of the Edgbaston High School; and E. A. Sonnenbchein, M.A., 28. Or separately: Accidence, Is.; Analysts and Syntax, Is. Ensrlish Examples and Exercises. Part I., by M. A. Woods, late Head Mistress of the Clifton High School, Is. Part n., by A. J. Coopeb, F.C.P., Is. Steps to Engrllsh Parslnsr and Analysis, by E. M. Bamsay, late Assistant Mistress at the Wimbledon High School, and C. L. Bamsay; Vol. I., Elementary, Is. 6d.; Vol. II., Further Exereisea, Is. 6d. FRENCH GRAMMAR, by L. M. Moriabty, M.A. Oxon., Assistant Master at Harrow School, late Professor of French at King's College, London, 3s. Or separately: Accidence, Is. 6d.; Syntax, Is. 6d. Preparatory French Course, by A. M. Zweifel, is. 6d. First French Reader and Writer, by K. J. Mobich, Assistant Master at Clifton College, and W. S. Lyon, M.A. Oxon., Is. 6d. Second French Reader and Writer, by P. E. E. Babbibb, Officier d'Acadmie, Univ. Gall., Lecturer in French in University College, Cardiff, Is. 6d. Third French Reader and Writer, by L. BABBi:, B.A., Head Master of the Modem Language Department in the Glasgow Academy, 28. GERMAN GRAMMAR, by Kuno Meyer, Ph.D., Professor of Teutonic Languages in Univ. Coll., Liverpool, 3s. Or: Accidence, Is. 6d.; Syntax, Is. 6d. First German Reader and Writer, by E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A., Is. Second German Reader and Writer, by W. S. Macgowan, M.A., L1.M. Cantab., Senior German Master at Cheltenham College, Is. 6d. Third German Reader and Writer, by Geobq Fdbdlbb, Ph.D., Professor of German in Mason Coll., Birmingham, 28. SPANISH GRAMMAR, by H. Butleb Clabee, M.A. Oxon., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford; late Taylorian Teacher of Spanish, 4s. 6d. First Spanish Reader and Writer, by H. Butleb Clabkb, M.A. Oxon., &. DANO-NORWEGIAN READER, with Granmiatical OutUne, by J. t. Sargent, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, Ss. 6d. Fourth French Reader and Writer, by H. E. Bebthon, B.A., Professor of Bomance Languages in University College, Nottingham. Single copies of any volume will be sent post free to any teacher on receipt ofalf its published price, London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., Lm New Yobk: MACMILLAN & CO.
(delwedd F7180) (tudalen a003)	Parallel Grammar Series Edited by E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. Oxon. Professor of Classics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the University of Birmingham. WELSH
(delwedd F7181) (tudalen a004)	First Edition, November. 1897; Second Edition, February, 1898; Third Edition, March 1901; Fourth Edition, August, 1907.
(delwedd F7182) (tudalen a005)	5 PREFACE The present Welsh Grammar is designed to meet a long-felt want both for a short practical grammar of the language, and for a condensed and systematic summary of the results of Modern Comparative Grammar as applied to the study of Welsh. The Author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to previous Welsh Grammars, and to the Report of the Committee upon Welsh Orthography, as well as the writings of Zeuss, Rhŷs and other Celtic philologists. To Prof. Sonnenschein, the General Editor of the Parallel Grammar Series, the Author feels that he is specially indebted for the cordial and willing aid which he has given at all stages of the book’s progress. The Author’s best thanks are moreover due to Prof. Rhŷs, Prof. Powel, and Prof. John Morris Jones for their many valuable suggestions and aid in the correction of proof sheets. To Prof. Rhŷs’ lectures on the Mabinogion at Oxford the author owes his first scientific introduction to Welsh Philology, and many a conversation with him and with Profs. Powel and Morris Jones has been of valuable service in the composition of the present work. E. ANWYL ABERYSTWYTH November 1, 1897 The Author has availed himself of the opportunity of a Second Edition, which has been called for almost immediately on publication, to make a few corrections and additions. December 15^th, 1897. E.A.
(delwedd F7183) (tudalen a006)	CONTENTS INTRODUCTION - Page 1 ACCIDENCE - Page 18 ·····PARTS OF SPEECH - Page 18 ·····NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES - Page 18 ···············Number of Nouns - Page 19 ···············Plural of Nouns - Page 20 ···············Plural of Adjectives - Page 24 ···············Gender of Nouns - Page 26 ···············Comparison of Adjectives - Page 30 ·····NUMERALS (ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS) - Page 32 ·····PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREWITH - Page 34 ···············Personal - Page 34 ···············Possessive - Page 35 ···············Demonstrative - Page 36 ···············Interrogative and Indefinite - Page 38 ···············Relative - Page 39 ···············Definitive - Page 40 ·····ADVERBS - Page 40 ·····VERBS - Page 41 ···············The verb ŵyf - Page 44 ···············The verb dysgaf - Page 48 ···············Contracted verbs - Page 51 ···············The Verb-noun - Page 54 ···············Irregular Verbs - Page 57 ·····QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS - Page 69 ·····PREPOSITIONS - Page 71 APPENDIX - Page 75 ·····QUANTITY - Page 75 ·····INITIAL MUTATION - Page 76 ·····SPELLING - Page 79
(delwedd F7184) (tudalen 001)	INTRODUCTION 1 Welsh belongs to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. 2 The Celtic branch falls into two groups: - ··········1 the Goidelic, consisting of Erse or Irish Gaelic, Scotish Gaelic, and Manx Gaelic. ··········2 The Brythonic, consisitng of Welsh, Breton, and Cornish (now extinct). 3 The languages within each of these groups resemble one another closely, but the two groups themselves, in spite of thier kinship, present many important points of difference. N.B. - The Welsh with which this grammar deals is that of the Modern Literary language.
(delwedd F7185) (tudalen 002)	2 WELSH GRAMMAR 4 Alphabet A (a) B (bi) C (ec) Ch (ech) D (di) Dd (edd) E (e) F (ef) Ff (eff) G (eg) Ng (eng) H (aitsh or hi) I (i) L (el) Ll (ell) M (em) N (en) O (o) P (pi) Ph (ffi) R (er) S (es) T (ti) Th (eth) U (u) W (w) Y (y) OBS. - In the Welsh settlement of Patagonia, V is frequently used for F, and F for Ff. ····· 5 On Sounds Letters are signs of symbols representing sounds. In Welsh, the symbols used in the written language represent the sounds of the spoken language far more accurately than in English: ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, and th, being counted for this purpose as single letters. Welsh may, therefore, to all intents and purposes, be siad to be phonetically written. The only letters which have more than one sound are e, u, and y: - e has, in some diphthongs, the sound of y [In North Wales only], in others the sound o u; y has, under certain circumstances, the sound of u; and both u and y have in some words the sound of i. ····· 6 Classification of Sounds Articulate sounds are of two kinds:- I. Vowel Sounds, produced by vibration of the vocal chords, accompanied by the articulation proper to each vowel. II. Consonant Sounds, produced by means of the lips (Labials), teeth (Dentals), palate (Palatals), throat or back part of the palate (Gutturals), tongue (Linguals), nose (Nasals), or some combination of these parts, with or without vibration of the edges of the vocal chords.
(delwedd F7186) (tudalen 003)	3. INTRODUCTION 7 Comparative Table of Welsh and English Sounds ····· (b) Simple Vowel Sounds SOUNDS ENGLISH EXAMPLES WELSH EXAMPLES A-SOUNDS màmma fâther short in màm long in tâd E-SOUNDS (i) Open (ii) Half-open wèt short in nèrth long in llê I-SOUNDS (i) Open (ii) Close bìt (nearly) machîne Short in cùro / Long in cûr Long in blîn / Short in pìn O-SOUNDS (i) Open (ii) Half-open hòt Short in tòn Long in sôn U-SOUNDS rûle, fool (nearly) good Long in sŵn Short in llw`m NEUTRAL VOWEL misèry cûrl Short in ffy`ddlon Long in fŷ Observe that the symbols of a in English man, and of o in English no (close o); of open o as in cause; of open e as in there; of close e as in fate, are wanting in Welsh, or appear only in dialects. ‘Open’ means formed with a wide passage for the voice ‘Close’ means formed with a narrow passage for the voice ····· (b) Consonant Sounds SOUNDS ENGLISH EXAMPLES WELSH EXAMPLES LABIALS bay pay way byd pen gwynt LABIO-DENTALS vine fine afon ffol, gorphen DENTALS · · · · SIBILANT do to thy thigh seal dos tan addaw peth sel PALATALS SIBILANT shoes yes eisio (in some dialects) iaith GUTTERALS PALATAL PALATAL VELAR VELAR VELAR get (in some dialects) good could loch ger ceffyl gwr cath achos LINGUALS low (wanting) row (wanting) alaw llaw erw rhaw NASALS (wanting) (wanting) (wanting) my nigh sing mhen nhad nghael mam nes ngwr ROUGH BREATHING house hen
(delwedd F7187) (tudalen 004)	4 WELSH GRAMMAR 8 NOTE 1. -y is pronounced like Welsh u: - ·····(a) In monosyllables: e.g. sŷdd, is; dyn, man; except in the proclitics yr (ydd); y; ys; fy, my; dy, they; and myn, by (used in asserverations). (A proclitic is a word which has no accent of its own, but is joined for the purpose of accentuation to the words which follows it) ·····(b) In the final syllable of a word of more than one syllable: e.g. sefyll, standing; estyn, reaching; perthyn, belonging ·····(c) In the last syllable but one of a word, before a vowel: e.g. hyawdl, eloquent; dyall, understanding. ·····(d) In the last syllable but one, or the last syllable but two of many words, when it is preceded by w: e.g. gwyneb, face; gwyddau, geese; gwyntoedd, winds. ···· 9 NOTE 2. - In the greater part of mid-Wales and South-Wales u is pronounced as i, and sometimes as y ····· 10 NOTE 3. - u is pronounced as i throughout Wales in – ugain, deugain, union, rhÿwun, cynnull, bugail, duwiol, annuwiol, ieuenctid, diluw, trueni, Deheudir, cuddio ····· 11 NOTE 4. - y is pronounced as i throughout Wales in - disgybl,  disgyn,  diwyg,  diwygio,  diwygwyr,  dilyn,  gilydd,  megys,  dinystr,  disgwyl,  gyda,  meddyg,  gloywi,  tebyg,  ceryg,  llewyg,  llewys,  plisgyn,  dychymyg,  amryw,  rhywun,  cyw, yw, ydyw,  efengyl,  gwylio,  dryw,  cyfryw, ystryw,  distryw,  heddyw,  benyw,  rhelyw,  llinyn,  menyg,  diddym. This occurs either (a) when the vowel of the preceding syllable is i; or (b) when the y is preceded or followed by g; or (c) when the y is followed by w. NOTE 5. - ll seems to be pronounced by pressing the lower side of the front part of the tongue against the roof of the mouth and emitting the breath over its sides, without vibration of the vocal chords. NOTE 6. - w and i are used both as vowels and as consonants: e.g., in gwynt and iaith w and i are consonants ····· (c) Diphthongs 12 1. A diphthong is produced by running two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single syllable. ····· 13 2. The first of the two vowels of a diphthong may be short or long. ····· 14 3. The sounds e,o,y form diphthongs with i,u,w. The sounds i,u form diphthongs with w. The sound w forms diphthongs with u. ····· REMARKS. IN N. WALES. - In the diphthongs written ae, oe, e is pronounced as u. In the diphthongs written ei, eu, e is pronounced as y. (Except in a few words, chiefly monosyllables, where e has its own sound). In the diphthongs written wy, yw, y is pronounced as u.
(delwedd F7188) (tudalen 005)	5 INTRODUCTION 15 Tables of Diphthongs A-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES ài âi gwaith â’i àu àu âu (In North Wales only) âu aur hiraeth gwâudd câe àw âw awr llâw ····· E-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES àe ein èu èu gweu teyrn (The name of the distict Lleyn is prnounced Llûn) èw êw (In North Wales only) blewyn llew ····· I-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES ìw lliw ····· O-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES òi troi òu òu ôu o’u oerach ôed òw dowch ····· U-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES ùw ùw Duw byw ····· W-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES ŵu ŵu bwydo rhŵyd ····· Y-Diphthongs SOUNDS EXAMPLES ỳi (In North Wales only) einioes ỳu (In North Wales only) gweunydd ỳw bywyd NOTE. - yw is not infrequently pronounced as ow; e.g. Howel for Hywel ····· OBS. Rules for determining the quantity of a vowel or a diphthong are given in the Appendix N.B. -In the sequel, the quantity of only long vowels and diphthongs will be indicated, where necessary, thus: - tâd, mâe, â. Short vowels and diphthongs will be left unmarked.
(delwedd F7189) (tudalen 006)	WELSH GRAMMAR Further Classification of Consonants. I ConionaiLt Saimda majr also ba classed as: — I. Voiced, i.e. Accompanied by vibration of the edgfs of the vocai chords. t. Voiceless, i.e. Not accompanied by vibration of the edges of the vocal chords. Contrast the sound b (voiced) with the sound p (voiceless). f Or again as: — 1. HComeiitary, i.e. fonned by a kind of explosion, when the breath is again set free after a momentary closure of the mouth. During this momenUry closure there is a very brief interval of silence; hence their common name, ' mutes '; e.g. b, p, d, t, %, o. 2, Continuotts, i.t. formed by a stream of air rubbing against a narrow passage of the mouth. The continuous sounds represented in Welsh by i, w, f , ff (pt), dd, th, ch, t, are generally called ' spirants.' The continuous sounds represented by 1, 11; r, rh; m, mh; n, nh; ng, ngli, are generally called ' liquids,' but II, rh, mil, nli, ngh have also a marked resemblance to the spirants. Classified Table of Consonants. Labials. Labio-dentals. Dentals. Palatals. Gutturals. Voiceless Voiced byd tad dyn Pnlatal. Vilar. ces Calh gwr ii Voiceless Voiced gwyn phen, ffydd fyd . thad, sel Sib ddyn eisio iaith Chath Voiceless* Voiced mien myd nhad' nyn unionf?) nghath ng*r J Voiceless* Voiced Haw, rhaw law, raw
(delwedd F7190) (tudalen 007)	7 INTRODUCTION 19 20 21 22 B. Sounds in Connected Speech. 1. Speech consists, as a rule, not of isolated words or sounds, but of groups of words, or more properly, * breath-groups ' — i.e. a certain number of words connected bv sense and uttered in one breath. The unit of connected speech is then, not the word, but the word-group; e.g, in English, * what-do-you-want? ' 2. It must be remembered that in any language the same word has at least two pronunciations: (x) when isolated or emphasized; (2) when used in ordinary connected speech: e,g, fy becomes fy and even y in colloquial Welsh, as in ' ymhn, my head, 3. In many languages, form (2) of a given word differs from form (i) in its ending; but, in the Celtic languages, Welsh included, it is the beginning of a word that changes. 4. The laws which regulate these changes will be given under * Initial Mutation.' § 57, etc., and Appendix. 23 24 25 1. ARTICULATION 23 Care should be taken to pronounce the vowels, even of unaccented syllables, clearly. The consonants should be pronounced somewhat more lightly than in English, yet with perfect distinctness. The long vowels are never diphthongized as they are in English. 2. ACCENT (TONIC) (a) Word Accent 24 1. The Accent or Tonic Accent is the stress laid upon a particular syllable in a word. As in English, the Accent may be Principal ( ´ ) or Secondary ( ` ), or the syllable may be unaccented: e.g. bèndigédig, dì-lywódraeth. {NODIAD: bendigedig = wonderful, dilywodraeth = ungoverned, uncontrolled} 25 1. The Principal Accent, in Welsh, almost invariably falls on the last syllable but one. This syllable is generally called the penult or penultima; the syllable before it is called the antepenultima, and the last syllable the ultima. NOTE. - Some small words (except when emphatic) have no accent: e.g. a, yr, y, yn, fy, dy, etc. If joined for purposes of accentuation to the word which follows it, such a word is called proclitic; if joined to the words which precedes it, it is called enclitic.
(delwedd F7191) (tudalen 008)	8 WELSH GRAMMAR Words Accented on the Last Syllable 26 The accent falls on the last syllable: - .....1. In words whose last syllable is the result of contraction: ..........e.g. ymdrói (for dró-i); Cymrâeg (for -á-eg); bywhânt (for há-ant). {NODIAD: ystên = pitcher, ystánc = stake, ymlŷn = it sticks itself, it binds itself, ymwêl = he / she visits} 27 2. In some words the first syllable of which is ys- or ym-: ..........e.g. ystên, ystánc, ymlŷn, ymwêl {NODIAD: ymdrói = turn, rotate; Cymrâeg = Welsh language; bywhânt = they eat} 28 3. In the emphatic reduplicated pronouns, myfí, tydí, etc.* *(Rarely my´fi, ty´di, etc) {NODIAD: myfi = I, tydi = you} 29 4. In some combinations of prepositions with nouns: ..........e.g. hebláw, isláw, drachéfn. {NODIAD: hebláw = besides, isláw = below, drachéfn = again} 30 5. In some English words, as apêl, appeal, and somtiems in dylêd, debt Words Accented on the Last Syllable but Two These are:- 31 1. Words in which an w`, the remnant of the Old Brythonic termination, -uos, -uâ, -uon, has become a separate syllable: ..........e.g. méddw-dod, gwéddw-dod, bédw-lwyn. In spoken Welsh w in such words is frequently elided. {NODIAD: meddwdod = drunkenness, gweddwdod = widowhood, bedwlwÿn = birch grove} 32 2. Words ending in l and r after b, d, or g. Here l and r are practically treated as vowels, or as consonants accompanied by a very slight vowel sound: e.g. bánadl, ffénestr. In spoken Welsh they are often elided. ..........e.g. perig (for perygl), ffenest (for ffenestr). {NODIAD: banadl = broom bushes, broom as a material, ffenestr = window; perÿgl = danger} 33 3. Certain words borrowed from English, which preserve the English accent: e.g. mélodi, héresi, philósophi. {NODIAD: mélodi = melody, héresi = heresy, philósophi = philosophy} H before the Accented Syllable. 34 1. When the syllable before that which bears the accent ends i a vowel, or in m, n, ng, or r, the accented vowel is often preceded by h: e.g. cenhédloedd, oherwydd, cynghánedd. {NODIAD: cenedl = nation, cenhedloedd = nations; oherwÿdd = because, cynghanedd = alliteration} 35 2. As this takes place somewhat irregularly and dialectally, care should be taken to observe carefully in what words h is thus used. .........N.B. - For the same use of h before individual words see @68. The Accent in Compound Words. 36 1. Most compound words are accented regularly: .........e.g. try´mlais, blínfyd.
(delwedd F7192) (tudalen 009)	9 INTRODUCTION 37 2. In some compounds, chielfy those having for their first element a prepositional prefix, the component parts have not perfectly coalesced, and the prefix in consequence bears a strong secondary: e.g. cy`n-lýwydd, dì-fídio, rhàg-arwéiniad, cy`d-fýned.  (b) Group-Accent 38 1. Owing to the tendency in Welsh to rhythmical intonation, the correct pronuncaition of breath-groups is not easily acqured. 39 2. This intonation varies very considerably with different districts, but it usually causes the last syllable of a breath-group to be pronounced with a higher tone than the rest, while the chief stress-accent of the group tends to fall upon the last accented syllable.  (b) Thought-Accent 40 1. The Thought-Accent is the stress or emphasis laid upon a word or syllable, in order to bring out the meaning of the sentence. In corresponds to italics in print: e.g. Dengys ef wybodaeth, ond ei frawd anwybodaeth. ‘He shows knowledge, but his brother lack of knowledge’. 3. WORD BINDING 41 (a) Within the breath-group which is the unit of speech, there is no perceptible pause. Word binding of this kind is common to English and Welsh. 42 (b) In Welsh, however, the close connexion of the words which form a breath group, has caused the initial consonants of many words to undergo phonetic changes similar to those which have taken place in individual words: e.g. Old Welsh o pen, from a head, has become o ben; just as Old Welsh aper, estuary, has become aber. 43 (c) These changes of initial consonants, which play a very important part in Welsh, as in the other Celtic languages, will be given under “Initial Mutations.” @@57, 58, 59, etc. 44 NOTE. - In their origin, these changes were phonetic, but, as is often the case, the working of analogy has played an importnat part in determining their modern employment.
(delwedd F7193) (tudalen 010)	10 WELSH GRAMMAR PHONETIC LAWS AND TENDENCIES. Changes of sound in language are due — *«5 A To phonetic causes proper, depending upon the mechanism of the organs of speech and hearing. These causes mainly operate in bringing about assimilation: (a) Of vowels to vowels, (b) of vowels to consonants, () of consonants to vowels, (d) of consonants to consonants, all with a view to economy of effort. 0 B. To mental causes, whereby one sound is sometimes substituted for another, when some real or fancied analogy seems to require it, mainly in order to bring about greater regularity. The mind continually tries to classify the facts of language, namely, sounds and forms, on the basis of certain characteristics, which they have in common. The basis of this classification often changes, so that what was regular under the old classification may be irregular under the new, and hence a frequent tendency to bring that which is irregular into accordance with rule. Vowel-Changes. 47 1 The vowel-changes which take place in Welsh may be seen I from the following tables: — z. Change due to the influence of the vowel of the following syllable. Sounds. t Examples. au aw nant gardd can maen taw nentydd gerddi ceni meini tewi
(delwedd F7194) (tudalen 011)	INTRODUCTION EXAMPLES à à âu ê ò ôu (ôu) ài èi ài û ù wû (âu) bychan sarff mâen hên porth ôen (trôed) bychain seirff main hŷn pyrth ŵyn (trâed) {NODIAD: bychan, plural: bychain = small; sarff, plural: seriff = serpent; maen, plural: main = stones; hen = old, hŷn = older; porth, plural: pyrth = gateway; oen, plural: wyn = lamb; troed, plural: traed = foot) 4. change in one vowel due to change in that following it SOUNDS EXAMPLES à w` ài y dafad cwmwl defaid cymylau {NODIAD: dafad, plural: defaid = sheep; cwmwl, plural: cymylau = cloud) 5. change due to the simplificarion of a diphthong in an unaccented syllable SOUNDS EXAMPLES àu àw èi è ò ù caffael marchawg busteich caffel marchog bustych {NODIAD: caffael (old form/ caffel = to get; marchawg (old form) / marchog = knight; busteich, bustÿch = two plural forms of bustach = bullock)
(delwedd F7195) (tudalen 012)	12 WELSH GRAMMAR 2. change due to the influence of a lost vowel â SOUNDS EXAMPLES ù w` è ò byr trwm ber trom {NODIAD: byr = short, trwm = heavy; ber = feminine form of byr; trom = feminine form of trwm } 3. change due to the influence of a lost consonantal i SOUNDS 6. change due to the addition of an ending SOUNDS EXAMPLES à â ê ô w `u ài àu âu àw ùw ùw wû è* ò è ò y `y y`i y`u y`u ò ù y`w wù plant mân gwên môr bwrdd ffŷdd main haul mâes llawr buwch llyw bŵyd plent-yn man-ach gwen-u mor-oedd byrdd-au ffydd-lon mein-ach heul-iau meus-ydd llor-io buch-od llyw-ydd bwyd-o *(only when the ending contains the vowel i or y). See @47.1 NOTE 1. - In words borrowed from Latin accented â has become àw, and later ô; ê has become ŵy: close ô has become u: e.g. ymherawdr (imperâtor), cardod (caritât-em), cŵyr (cêra), urdd (ôrdo). NOTE 2. - The terminationof borrowed Latin words, like the termination of old Brythonic words, have now been lost in Welsh. {NODIAD: plant = children, plent-yn = child, mân = small, man-ach = smaller, gwên = a smile, gwen-u = to smile, môr = sea, mor-oedd = seas, bwrdd = table, byrdd-au = tables, ffŷdd = faith, ffydd-lon = faithful, main = slim, mein-ach = slimmer, haul = sun, heul-iau = suns, mâes = field, meus-ydd = fields, llawr = floor, llor-io to floor (somebody), buwch = cow, buch-od = cows, llyw = helm, llyw-ydd = leader, bŵyd = food, bwyd-o = feed) Consonant-Changes 48 1. The consonant-changes of Welsh are mostly of mutes, when preceded and followed by continuous letters, either in individual words or in breath-groups. They arise from a tendency to preserve an unbroken continuity of sound within the word or breath-ggroup. Fro example, a voiceless sound may become voiced, when it stands between two vowels, i.e. the vibration of the vocal chords continues, while the consonant is being articulated. If the mute be already voiced, it tends to pass into the corresponding spirant, i.e. instead of momentarily stopping the flow of breath, as is done in the case of a mute, we allow the flow to continue. 49 2. The consonant-changes of Welsh should be carefully observed, not only because they illustrate the phonetic tendencies of the language, but also on account of their practical application in the formation of compound words and in initial mutation. 50 3. These changes can often be conveniently illustrated by means of words borrowed from Latin during the Roman occupation of Britain.
(delwedd F7196) (tudalen 013)	13 INTRODUCTION :51 A. Assimilation of Mutes to Continuous Letters. 1. To vowels. SOUNDS EXAMPLES p t c b d g pp pt ct cc b d g f dd (lost) ff th th ch capistrum pater locus taberna prûdens sagitta cippus captus doctus peccâtum cebystr pader llôg tafarn prûdd sâeth cŷff câeth dôeth pechod ····· {NODIAD: cebystr = halter, pader = Lord’s Prayer, padernoster, llôg = interest, tafarn = tavern, prûdd = gloomy, sâeth = arrow, cŷff = tree stump, câeth = slave; enslaved, addicted, dôeth = wise, pechod = sin } 2. To spirants SOUNDS EXAMPLES p t c ph th ch is *pen is tafod is calon ei phen ei thafod ei chalon *The precise sound of this sibilant is uncertain. It has now been everywhere assimilated {NODIAD: ei phen = her head, ei thafod = her tongue, ei chalon = her heart } ····· 3. To nasals SOUNDS EXAMPLES mp nt nc mb nd ng-g mh nh ngh mm nn ng tempor- contend- cancell- ambiguus candêla angelus tymhor* cynhen* canghell* ammeu** cannwyll angel *h in these words is now fequently opmitted, except on the addition of an ending, when the syllable which it introduces becomes accented **Now frequently written ameu {NODIAD: Now amau} {NODIAD: tymhor- (penult form of tymor = season), cynhen- (penult form of cynne = contention, dispute), canghell- (as in canghellor = chancellor), ammeu (now amau, = to doubt), cannwyll = candle, angel = angle}
(delwedd F7197) (tudalen 014)	WELSH GRAMMAR 14 4. To l (lingual) SOUNDS EXAMPLES lp lc lb ld ld lff lch lf ll lld, llt Alpinus calc- gilbin (Old Welsh) caldârium sol(i)d- Elphin calch gylfin callawr (sŵlld) sŵllt {NODIAD: tymhor- (Elphin (modern spelling Elffin; nowadays obsolete, replaced by Alpau), calch = lime, gylfin = beak, callawr = cauldron, swllt = shilling} ···· 5. To r (lingual) SOUNDS EXAMPLES rp rt rc rb rd rg rft rth rch rf rdd ri serpens part-em arca turba ôrdo argentum sarff parth arch torf urdd arian {NODIAD: sarff = serpent, parth = part, district, arch = coffin, torf = crowd, urdd = religious order, arian = silver} B. Other Changes 52 1. m has become f: e.g. rêmus, rhŵyf, oar ··········lt has become llt: e.g. altum, âllt (also ll: e.g. altâre, allawr) ··········lm has become lf: e.g. palma, palf ··········rm has become rf: e.g. arma, arf ··········rl has become rll: e.g. iarl, iarll ··········mn has become rdd: e.g. lam(i)na, llafn ··········thb has become thp: e.g. daethpwyd for daethbwyd {NODIAD: rhŵyf = oar, llat = hill, allawr (now allaor) = altar, palf = palm of the hand, arf = arm, weapon, iarll = earl, llafn = blade, daethpwyd = it has been brought} 2. f has been lost in plû for plûf* f has been lost in llâw for llâwf f has been lost in câel for cafel dd has been lost in rhoi for rhoddi *The loss of final f is one of the most marked characteristics of the colloquial Welsh of N. Wales. {NODIAD: plu= feather, llaw = handcael = get, receive, rhoi = give} 3. By dissimilation we have caffel for cafel {NODIAD: caffel = (old form) (v) get, receive, (n) acquisition} 4. Initial v has become gw in Welsh e.g. gwener from vener-is {NODIAD: Gwener = Venus, Friday}
(delwedd F7198) (tudalen 015)	INTRODUCTION 15 Consonant Changes i Compound Words 53 1. If the first element of a Compound be that which gives it its distinctive meaning - in other words, if it be of the nature of an attribute - the initial letter of the second element undergoes the changes described in @51, A, 1. 54 2. The second element of a some few compounds undergoes the changes described in @51, A, 2. 55 3. These changes, due originally to phonetic causes, are now treated as signs of composition, and mustbe made whenever a new compound is formed: e.g. arf-bais, coat of arms (from pais) gwerth-wr, seller, from gŵr palas-dy, palace, from tŷ {NODIAD: pais = petticoat, gŵr = man, tŷ = house} 56 4. The spirant change is hown in dy-chryn, terror; tra-chas, exceedingly hateful, and a few more words. NOTE:- For the purpose of compostion the voiceless sounds ll and rh are often voiced to l and r. Consonant Changes in Breath-Groups (Initial Mutation) 57 The Consonant changes which take place in breath groups are analogous to those, which, in course of time, have taken place in individual words and in the first elelment of compounds. These changes, like those of individual words and compounds, are, in their origin, the result of purely phonetic causes, operating when the consonant at the beginning of a word included in a breath-group followed and was follwed by a continuous letter. This would occur for instance in the case of an adjective following a fem. noun ending in â.
(delwedd F7199) (tudalen 016)	i6 WELSH GRAMMAR TABLE OF INTIAL MUTATIONS 58 1. The unchanged consonant is called the Radical 59 2. Mutations, from the point of view of sound-change, are of three types, Voiced, Spirant and Nasal. 60 SOUNDS EXAMPLES RADICAL VOICED SPIRANT NASAL p t c pren tâd cam bren dâd gam phren thâd cham mhren nhâd ngham b d g baich dŷn gŵr faich ddŷn #ŵr* maich nŷn ngŵr ll rh llais rhes lais res m mam fam *The sound here lost resembled the soft ‘g’ of German {NODIAD: pren = tree, tad = father, cam = step, baich = load, burden, dyn = man, gwr = man or husband, llais = voice, rhes = row (of houses, etc), mam = mother} Employment of the Initial Mutations 61 (a) Certain types of mutation correspond i usage to each other: The ‘spirant mutation’ in the case of b, d, g and m corresponds in usage to the ‘voiced mutation’ in the case of p, t, c, ll and rh. (b) Where p, t, c undergo the ‘spirant mutation,’ b, d, g, ll, rh, m undergo no change. (Except after ni, na, not; here b, d, g become f, dd, #; ll, rh, m become l, r, f) (c) Where p, t, c, b, d, g undergo the ‘nasal mutation,’ ll, rh, m undergo no change. Mutation of p, t, c, into b, d, g of b, d, g into f, dd, # of ll and rh into l and r of m into f 64 This is the most common form of mutation, and is commonly known as the soft mutation; for a list of the cases where it occurs, see Appendix (Initial Mutations). 69 The following points should be noted at the outset:- (1) After a verb or noun (including the verb-noun) a pronoun is mutated.
(delwedd F7200) (tudalen 017)	INTRODUCTION 17 66 67 68 69 70 71 (2) After adjeotives (including ordinal numbers, possessive adjectives 2nd s. and 3rd s. (masc), some indefinite adjectives and the interrogative adjective), a noun is mutated. (3) After a parenthesis a word is mutated. (4) After a finite verb the object-noun is mutated, the subject-noun is not. (5) After a noun fem. sing., an adjective is mutated, after a noun masc* sing, it is not. (6) After the definite article a noun fem. sing, is mutated, a noun masc. sing, is not. (7) After a Verb the object-noun is mutated, after a verb-noun it is not. (8) After the pre-verbal particle a, a verb is mutated, after y it is not. (9) After the predicate particle yn a noun or adjective is mutated. Mutation of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. This occurs: — 1. After tri (masc), t/iree; chwe six; ei (fem.), Aer. 2. After tra, exceedingly in the case of adjectives and verbs, and after ni, na, not in the case of verbs. 3. After the prepositions a*, tua, gyda, efo, ivith, 4. After the conjunctions a*, and-y na, nor than] 6 ( = os), if. Mutation of p, t, c into mh, nh, ngh: of h, d, g into m, n, ng This occurs: — 1. After the poss. adj. fy, my: e., fy mhen (fr. pen, head). 2. After the numerals, pum, saith, wyth, naw, deng, ugain, can; in the case of diwrnod, day; blynedd and blwydd, year, 3. In nouns after the preposition yn, in. Prefixing of h to Initial Vowels. This process, which is analogous to the insertion of h before the accented syllable in an individual word (see § 34), occurs as follows: — T. In nouns following the poss. adjectives 'm, ei (fem.), ein, eu (but not eich): e.g. ei henw, her name; eu hysbryd, their spirit. 2. In verbs following the postvocalic ace. pers. pron. 'i: e,g. fe 'ihtwyWysioddy he wi//ed it. 3. In ugain, twenty, when used in compound numerals after the preposition ar, on: e.g tri ar hugain, tiventy-three. .Note. — It is by this process that we have the form pa ham? why'i i.e. pa tja} for what} lit. what for} • The preposition a, ag, and the conjunction a, ac, are in origin the same word.
(delwedd F7201) (tudalen 018)	18 WELSH GRAMMAR ACCIDENCE. Accidence is the part of grammar which tells how words are declined (nouns, adjectives, pronouns), compared (adjectives), or conjugated (verbs). 73 Declension of nouns and adjectives in Welsh is limited to the formation of Singulars (in the case of nouns only). Plurals and Feminines. To some prepositions pronominal suffixes are added. Obs. — The Definite Article, yr, y, will be found under " Demonstrative Adjectives," § 145. Caution. — In parsing, each word should be parsed separately. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 74 I. Welsh nouns and adjectives have two Numbers — the Singular and the Plural — but no Case-endings. 2. The relations conveyed in Latin, and at one time in Welsh, by the Genitive, are now mainly expressed by putting the noun (uninflected) immediately after the noun on which it depends. 3. Other relations conveyed by the Genitive, as well as those conveyed by the Dative or Ablative, are expressed by using a preposition. The Nominative and Accusative are alike in form. Obs. — The adjective generally follows the noun in Welsh. See Syntax, §337. N.B. — Note carefully under pronouns, verbs and prepositions the use made of the noun in supplementing the pronominal, verbal and prepositional forms.
(delwedd F7202) (tudalen 019)	19 ACCIDENCE Number in Welsh Nouns. 75 Welsh, in the case of nouns, has two modes of expressing number:— (i) Where objects are most familiarly known in their collective aspect; in this case, the collective noun, treated in Syntax as a plural, is the undeclined form, and the singular is formed from it by adding a singular ending. (ii) Where objects are best known individnally; in this case the singular is the undeclined form, and the plural is formed from it, either by internal change of vowel or by the addition of a plural ending. Formation of the Singular from the Collective Noun. 76 I. The singular is formed from the collective by adding the ending -yn to form singulars masc.: -en to form singulars fem. Some collective nouns have a masc. singular, others a feminine singular. 77 2. On adding a singular ending, the vowels of the collective form must undergo the changes necessary when an ending is added. See § 47, i, 6. Examples: — adar, birds ader-yn; plant, children plent-yn; gwellt, grass gwellt-yn, blade of grass; yd, corny yd-en, a grain of corn; plu, feathers plu-en; sêr, stars ser-en; mellt, lightning, mellt-en, a flash of lightning. Note 1 — The singular and the collective forms sometimes differ in meaning: e.g, caws, cheese, cos-yn, ‘a cheese.' Note 2. — To some singulars of this type, no collective form corresponds; such singulars generally form plurals, for which see § 86. Formation of the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives from the Singular. 78 Nouns and Adjectives, which have plural forms, form them either: — (i) By internal change of vowel; e,g, sant, saint; pl. saint; bychan, small, pl. bychain, or (ii) By the addition of a plural ending: e,g. llong, ship: pl. llong-au; du, black, pl. du-on. 79 Note. — Most adjectives have no plurals, and the singular form, even of adjectives which have plurals, is not unfrequently used with plural nouns. See Syntax, § 336.
(delwedd F7203) (tudalen 020)	20 WELSH GRAMMAR Plural of Nouns. I. Internal Change of VoweL 80 This internal change of vowel is due to the influence of a lose ending of an "i" character. It occurs — {a) In an accented syllable, in moQOsyllabic nouns. {b) In an unaccented syllable, in disyllabic nouns. {a) In an accented syllable. Sounds. Examples. H i sant saint H li sarflf seirflf a i bran brain au i draen drain 5 ti . ffon ffyn 6 6i Ho lloi ou wu croen crwyn w wu gWr gwyr (b) In an unaccented syllable. Sounds. Examples. Ik i dafad defaid ii* bustach bustych lit cyllell cyllyll w • ii asgwrn esgyrn Note i. — Like defaid are formed the plurals of many derivative nouns in ad, and -iad. Note 2.— ty, house makes plur. tai; tided, y/, pi. tr&ed. Note 3. — a is changed into e in defaid and esgyrn on account of the change in the vowel of the final syllable. See § 47, 4. * Before ch, dr, 11, n, rch. t Not unfrcquently 1.
(delwedd F7204) (tudalen 021)	ACCIDENCE 21 II. Addition of a Plural Ending. 81 The following are the plural endings * in most common use: — -an (and -iau; -on (and -ion); -aid and -laid; -oedd, -ydd; -i; -od: e.g, pen, head pi. penn-au; helbul, trouble pi. helbul-on; Cesar, Caesar pi. Cesar-iaid; mor, sea pi. mor-oedd; afon, river y pi. afon-ydd; gardd, garden pi. gerdd-i; Hew, lion pi. llew-od. 82 NoTB I. —When a plural-ending is added to nouns containing certain vowels or diphthongs, these sounds must change according to the rules given under " Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel Changes," § 47, i, 6. €.g, nant, brooks pi. nent-ydd; saer, carpenter pi. seir-i; bwrdd, table, pL byrdd-au. 83 NoTR 2.— In the following forms, the root vowel appeari in the plaral— celanedd (S. celain, corpse); dannedd (S. daint and dant, tooth); dagrau (S. deigr, tear \ gwragedd (S. gwraig, woman); Iladron (S. lleidr, thief); nadroedd or nadredd (S. neidr, snake); rhianedd (S. rhiain and rhian, tnaidev. 84 Note 3. — cawg, ewer, has pi. cowg-iau; angel, angel, pi. angyMon; blynedd, year pi. blynydd-au; meddiant, possession, pi. meddiann-au; crafanc, claWy pi. crafang-au. Change of Stem in the Plural. 85 Some nouns add the plural ending, not to the ordinary singular form, but to a derivative of it: — {a) To a noun of cognate form and similar meaning. \b) To a verbal noun, formed from the singular by adding -ad or -lad. {c) To the singular form with an adjectival ending. Examples: — {a) cam, step pi. camr-au; chwaer, sister, pi. chwiorydd; dychryn, terrory pi. dychrynfe-ydd; nos, nighty pi. nosweith-iau. (3) cSn, song, pi. caniad-au; addurn, ornament, pi. addurn- iad-au; {c) Cristion, Chrisiiany pi. Cristionog-ion; gwlaw, rain, pi. gwlawog-ydd; gras, grace, pi. grasus-au. * The plural endings were originally the stem endings of the old Brythonic declensions, which, on the loss of the case-endings, served to distinguish the plural forms of many words from the singular. When, in course of time, these stem-endings were misten for plural endings proper, they were employed to form new plurals. f In some cases the vowel change has taken place in the siifgular form: 9,g, the Modern Welsh haul, tun, pi. heuliau, had the form *heui* in Mediaeval Welsh.
(delwedd F7205) (tudalen 022)	22 WELSH GRAMMAR Plural of Nouns in -yn and -en. 36 Rule: — Substitute the required plural-ending for the singular-ending -yn or -en: eg, difer-jn, drop pi. difer ion; cwning-en, rabbity pi. cwning-od; meddw-yn, drunkard, pi. meddw-on. Plural of Compound Nouns. 87 Compound nouns, in which the element that gives them their distinctive meaning comes first, are made plural by giving its plural form to their second element: — e,g. gwerth-wr, seller pi. gwerth-wyr (like gwyr); trig-fan, dwelling-place pi. trig-fannau (like mannau). Note. — i of the suffix -iwr is dropped in the plural, but where it is part of the root as in ysbi-wr, spy it is kept. Nouns with Double Plural Formations. 88 116, calf pi. lloiau (also lloi); neges, errand, pi. negeseuau (also negesau); can, song, pi. caneuon (and caniadau); gwls, servant, pi. gweision \ mab, son, pi. meibion. * Nouns with Two Plurals. The following are the most important: — 89 I. Without difference of meaning.— blwyddyn, year, pi. blynyddoedd and blynyddau; castell, castle, pi. cestyll and castelli; mynydd, mountain, pi. mynyddoedd and mynyddau; plwyf, parish, pi. plwyfi and plwyfydd; tref, town, pi. trefi and trefydd. 90 2. With difference of meaning. — bron, breast and hillside, pi. bronnau breasts, bronnydd, hillsides', cynghor, counsel and council', pi. cynghorion, counsels, cynghorau, councils', llwyth, tribe and load, pi. llwythau, tribes, llwythi, loads. Nouns used in the Plural only. 91 ymysgaroedd, entrails *, gwartheg, cattle', cyfreidiau, needs 'y teleidion, charms; ceinion, beauties. Anomalous Plurals. 92 brawd, brother, pi. brodyr; cefnder, first cousin, pi. cefndyr; cyfyrder, cousin once removed, pi. cyfyrdyr; ewythr, uncle, pi. ewythredd; modryb, aunt, pi. modrybedd*; cyfnither, female cousin, pi. cyfnitherod; ewin, finger nail, pi. ewinedd; daint (or dant), tooth, pi. dannedd; bys, finger, pi. bysedd; car, relative, friend, pi. ceraint; gof, smith, pi. gofaint; nai, nepheiv, pi. neiaint; nith, niece, pi. nithoedd; ych, ox, pi. ychenf; merch, girl, daughter, pi. merched; pryf, worm,insect,\, pryfed; ci,dog, pi. cwn. * N. Wales modrabedd. f Also ychain.
(delwedd F7206) (tudalen 023)	ACCIDENCE 23 Employment of the Chief Plural Endings. 93 an and ian, the most living plural endings in modern Welsh, are used to form the plural: — (a) Of most names of implements, articles of furniture, diet, dress, etc, whose plurals are not formed by internal change of vowel. (b) Of derivatives in -aid, -der, -did, -dod, -edd, -yd, -aeth; -ad and -iad (forming verbal nouns); also of feminiues (denoting instruments) in -adur, -ur, -in, -no. 94 oedd forms the plural of many nouns denoting: — (a) The larger divisions of time: e.g, blynyddoedd, years; canrifoedd, centuries \ oesoedd, ages. s (Ji) The larger divisions of laud: e,g. ardaloedd, districts; tiroedd, lands \ bydoedd, worlds, (c) The larger classes of natural phenomena: e,g, moroedd, secLS\ gwyntoedd, winds \ tymhestloedd, storms, {d) The larger divisions of numbers: e,g, cannoedd, hundreds] miloedd, thousands, (e) large masses of people: e.g. pobloedd, peoples \ Uuoedd, hosts \ byddinoedd, armies, \ 95 on and ion form the plural: — {a) Of many nouns denoting the more painful personal experiences: e,g, helbulon, troubles \ treialon, trials \ clefydon, diseases, (b) Of many abstract nouns denoting such ideas as cynghorion, ( counsels; rhybuddion, warnings; esgusion, excuses; bendiihion, blessings -, melldithion, curses, etc. {c) Of many adjectives used as nouns: e,g, cyfoethogion, rich; tlodion, poor, (d) Of derivatives in -ai, -og, -or, -ydd denoting persons: e,g. gwestai, guest, pi. gwesteion; marchog, knight, pL marchogion; drysor, door-keeper, pi. drysorion; .ysgrifenydd, secretary, pi. ysgrifenyddion. () Of nouns denoting persons and ceftain classes of persons: e,g, dynion, men \ meibion, youths \ trigolion, inhabitants \ apostolion, apostles, 96 ydd forms the plural: — . \a) Of nouns ending in -fa: e,g, llosgfa, conflagration, pL llosgfeydd; porfsL, pasture, pi. porfeydd. {b) Of many nouns denoting objects seen in a landscape: e.g, afonydd, rivers; ffosydd, ditches; magwyrydd, stone walls without mortar-, rhosydd, moor )
(delwedd F7207) (tudalen 024)	24 WELSH GRAMMAR 98 (r) Of some other nouns: e.g, diodydd, drinks; bwydydd, foods, yt od is mostly used for the plural of nouns denoting animals: e,g. camelod, cameis; llwynogod, foxes; llygod, mice; pysgod, fish. Also in eilunod, idols; llebanod, louts-, Ffrancod, Frenchmen; Gwyddelod, Irishmen. aid and iaid form the plural: — {a) Of many adjectives used as nouns: e.g, trueiniaid, wretched ones; gweiniaid, 7veak ones, (b) Of nouns in -ad, -iad, -adur, -nr, (denoting persons): e,g. ceidwad, keeper ceidwaid; pechadur, sinner pechaduriaid. {c) Ot nouns denoting religion, nationality, proper names: e.g, Protestaniaid, Protestants -y Syriaid, Syrians) Cesariaid, Caesars. N.B. — Haw, handy has no plural; d'virylaw, dylo, two hands, is in all cases used instead. Plural of Adjectives. 99 Adjectives, which have plurals, form them as nouns do: — (a) By internal change of voweL {b) By adding a plural- ending to the mascuHne singular. Note. — On adding a plural-ending, care must be taken to change the vowels of the word according to the rules given under Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel-changes, § 47, 6. a becomes ei; e,g, dall, blind, pi. deillion. {a) By Internal Change of Vowel. I. In accented syllables. Sound. Examples. >9 Si hardd Hall heirdd lleill 2. In an unaccented syllable. Sounds. Examples. g i ii (before rn) ii buan cadam caled buain cedyrn celyd
(delwedd F7208) (tudalen 025)	ACCIDENCE 25 B. Plural formed by adding a Plural-ending. Rule: — Add -ion. After br, dr, gr, thr, u, w, add -on. Note i. — tew,ya/, pi. tewion; glew, strong, pi. glewion; gwan, tveak pi. gweiniaid. Note 2. ~ Derivative adjectives ending in -edig, -og, -ol, -as, usually form a plural only when used as nouns. Feminine of Nouns and Adjectives. Formation of Feminine of Nouns. 100 General Rule: — Add -es; if the masc. sing, end in -yn, change -yn to -en: e,g, dyn, matiy dynes, woman; asyn, ass asen, she-ass, NoTB. — lleldr, thieft has fem. Uadrones; Sals, Englishman, fern. Saesnes. 101 1 The following pairs of words denoting Persons, Male and I Female, should be noted. Masculine. Meaning. Feminine. Meaning. bachgen boy geneth girl brawd brother chwaer sister cefnder cousin cyfnither cousin chwegrwn father-in-laxv chwegr fnother-in-law daw son-in-law gwaudd daughter- in-law ewythr uncle modryb aunt gwas man-servant morwyn maidservant gr husband gwraig wife it man a woman mab son merch daughter nai nephew nith ntece tad father mam mother taid grandfather nam grandmother tadcu ■ »» mamgu >«
(delwedd F7209) (tudalen 026)	26 WELSH GRAMMAR 102 i03 104 105 106 Formation of Feminine of Adjectives.* Most adjectives have no feminine form, and the growing tendency is to use the masculine for both genders. With a few exceptions, the adjectives which have feminine forms are monosyllables containing the vowels y and w. N.B. — Feminine forms are used in the singular only. 1. General Rule: — Change y to e; w to o. (See § 47, 2). e,g, cryf, strong fem. cref; Uwm, bare fem. Uoin. 2. Similarly: — brych, speckled \ byr, short \ gwlyb, ivet \ gwyn, 7vhtte\ gwyrdd, green \ llym, sharp \ syth, straight \ sych, dry\ crwm, stooping; crwn, round; dwfn, deep; tlws, pretty; and a few others. 3. Also the compotinds. — pengrych, curly- headed \ talgrych, tall and curly-headed', hirgrwn, elliptical \ pendrwm, top heavy \ pengrwn, round head, 4. One adjective brith, speckled has fem. braith. 5. The disyllabic adjectives: — bychan, stnall, and melyn, yellow, have fem. bechan and melen respectively; tywyll, dark sometimes has fem. tywell. Gender of Nouns. * 1. In Welsh there are two genders/ Masculine and Feminine. 2. There is no Neuter, and very few nouns are common. In the following paragraphs on Gender: — Masculine nouns are printed in Clarendon type. Feminine nouns are printed in italics. To discover the gender of a noun, ask: — I. Does the noun denote a person? If so: — Nouns that denote a Male person are Masculine: Nouns that denote a Female person are Feminine: e,g, cigydd, 'butcher'; bachgen, *boy'; geneth, * girl '; morwyn, * maiden.* By this rule we are able to simplify all other rules, by first excluding from consideration the nouns that denote persons, perthynas, * relation,* cyfyrder, * cousin once removed,' and some adjectives used as nouns, are of common gender, i,e, masculine or feminine according to their application. * Care must be taken not to confuse grammatical gender (of nouns), with sex (of persons or animals). 107
(delwedd F7210) (tudalen 027)	ACCIDENCE 27 Obs. I. — The above rule of Natural Gender does not apply to collective nouns: e.g. y fyddin 'the army '; y werin., ‘the common people,’ y gynnulleidfa, ‘the congregation.’ Since these do not denote "a male person” or "a female person," their gender follows the rules for sexless things given below. Obs. 2. — baban, * infant,' plentyn, * child,' tyst, 'witness,' are masculine whether denoting a male or female. Obs. 3. — Certain abstract nouns, used to denote persons, have their own gender, irrespective of their application: e,g. meichiau, * surety '; cydnabod, * acquaintance '; mawrhydi, * majesty '; arglwyddiaeih * lordship.' II. If the noun does not denote a person, then ask: Does THE NOUN DENOTE A SEXLESS THING? If SO, itS gender wlll generally depend upon its form. The main rules and exceptions are given in §§ 109-111. 108 There are some classes of nouns, chiefly proper names of sexleii things, in which the gender is determined, not by the form, but by the meaning of the word. (a) Proper names of Rivers are mostly feminine (corresponding to the gender of an, * river*): e.g, Y Ddyfrdwy *the Dee.* iff) Proper names of Days of the Week, Months, Seasons, Winds, Cardinal Points are masculine, corresponding to the gender of dydd, * day *; mis, * month *; tymor, * season *; gwynt, * wind *; respectively. • (r) Proper names ot Feasts are masculine: e.g, j F&sg, * Easter *; y Snlgwyn, * Whitsuntide *; y Grawys, • Lent *; y ITadolig, « Christmas.* {d) Proper names of Parishes, Towns, Cides, Countiies are feminine, corresponding to the gender of //«», * church *; tref * town *; cncUf * city *; and gw/dd, * country,* respectively. {e) Proper names of letters of the alphabet are feminine. (/) Nouns denoting kinds of wood (not trees) are masculine, corresponding to the gender of pren, wood.
(delwedd F7211) (tudalen 028)	28 WELSH GRAMMAR Rules for Nonns Denoting Sexless Things. )9 All indeclinable parts of speech used as nouns (except names uf letters of the alphabet;, including all verb-nonns are masctiline: e.g. yr os, * the "if"; y bwyta, ' the eating.' Also adjectives denoting colour, ideas, numbers, and language used as nouns: — e.g. y melyn, * the yellow '; y gwir, * the true '; y pedwar, *the four'; Cymraeg da, *good Welsh'; but y Gymrdeg (fem.), * the Welsh language,' corresponding to the gender of iaith * language.' LO For determining the gender of nouns denoting sexless things by their form, the following rules may be given; — Rule i. — Simple nouns of one syllable haying as their vowel or diphthong, a, a, ae, ai, au, aw, aw are masculine. Rule 2. — Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, ei, i, i, iw, u, u, w, w, wy, wy, y, y, are masculine. Rule 3. — Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, <?, J, J<f, , i are feminine. Rule 4. — Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is a, w, a, or y, are masculine. Rule 5. — Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is ai e o wy, are feminine. Rule 6. — Derivative nouns, ending in -ad (-iad), -ftd (-hftd), -adnr, -ai, -ant, -aint, -deb, -der, -did (dyd), -dod, -draj -edd, -i, -iaint, -ineb. -ioni, -ni, -rwydd, -nr (and -yr), -wch, -wy, are masculine. Rule 7. — Derivative nouns, ending in -acA, -aeth, {-iaeth), -ainy -as, -eby -edy -elly -en, -fa, -iar -ig, -in, -og are feminina Rule 8. — Derivative nouns ending in -aid, -an, -od, have the same gender as the nouns to which the ending is added. • Rule 9. — The gender of a Compound noun is the same as that of the noun to which it gives a special meaning: e.g. colomendy (like ty), dove-cot, lit. dove-house; mammaeth, nurse, lit. nursing-mother (like mam).
(delwedd F7212) (tudalen 029)	ACCIDENCE 29 111 (tf) Exceptions to Rule l. — arcA, bam fidffty glan iampj llan safn; bdih cdd cdn jzvlddy llcUh rhdff; cder sdeih, del; craith ff<iit iaith llain, natd plaidy sail; awr dawn dawnsy gwawr; lldWy rhdw, {b) Exceptions to Rule 2.— cist, gitn, Sjisg; punt; dust; gwyrth gwystl; ffyddy tyb; clwydy cwyn, ffrwyn, gwyl hwyl, hvyr rhwvd, {e) Exceptions to Rule 3. — com, corph,?o, ofii, porth [gate); clod, cdf, grd, tro, modd, nod; croeo, ded, tdes, trded; cefii, edu, elw, gwerth, mefl, north, pen, serch; bedd, gwSUt, gwrii, 11§, llSd, medd, mSl. {a) Exceptions to Rule 4. — crafanc, talar, daear, dittos, civppan* ardd- wm; erthygl, ynys, ergyd; natur, piadur, gwefus, [e) Exceptions to Rule 5. — enaid, aberth, amser, angen, (camwedd), (car- tref), castell, cawell, halen, banes, pared, bore, preieb; (anwyd), awyr, (gorchwyl), (gwobrwy), (cyfrwy). (/) Exception to Rule 6,'—galwad, {g) Exceptions to Rule 7.— prynedigaeth, darfodedigaeth, gwasanaeth. 112 III. — I. If the noun denotes neither a person nor a sexless thing, ask lastly: Does the noun denote a kind of animal? {i,e. one of the lower animals). If so, remember that names of animals in Welsh, are rarely, if ever, of common gender, being either masculine or feminine: e,g. eryr, * eagle * is masculine; colomen, * dove ' is feminine. 2. In the case of some animals there are pairs of nouns to denote the male and the female respectively: eg, adiad, * drake,* hwyaden, * duck '; carw, hydd, *stag,' ewtg *hind'; hwrdd, * ram,' dafad, * sheep '; ceiliog, *cock,' idr, *hen.' 3. Where it is necessary to denote the sex, it may be indicated by adding gwrryw, * male,' benyw, *female '; the name of the animal preserving its own gender, as indicated by the mutation, if it be feminine, (or non-mutation, if it be masculine) of the initial letter of the adjective: e,g, cdth wrryw, eryr benyw. Diminutive Nouns. 113 The endings added to the singular to form diminutive nouns are -an, -ig, -yn, -cyn \ to the plural, -ach and -os. e.g. dynan (com. gend.) Mittle person '; oenig, * little lamb ': dernjrn, 'little piece*; bryncyn, 'little hiir; dynionach (com. gend.), 'poor mortals' (fr. dynion); plantos, 'little children* (fr. plant);' gwrageddos, *poor women ' (fr. gwragedd). * In the Welsh translation of the Bible cwppan is masculine.
(delwedd F7213) (tudalen 030)	30 WELSH GRAMMAR 115 Comparison of Adjectives. 1. In addition to the Comparative proper, and the Superlative, there is in Welsh a Comparative of Equality, of the same meaning as the Positive in English preceded by so as or how: e,g. wyned y w, so white is it; wyned a'r eira, as white as the sfunv; Wyned ydy \v! How white it is i 2. The usual endings are:— a) For Comp. of equality, -ed: b) For Compar. proper, -ach: \c) For Superlative, -af: e,g. du, black; du-ed, as black; du-ach, blacker; du-af, blackest. Note i. — If the positive end in b, d, g (alone or followed by a liquid), these sounds are changed respectively into p, t, e, in both comparatives and the superlatives: e.g* gwlyb, wei gwlyped, gwlypach, gwlypaf; hagr, ugly haoraf. Note 2. — If the last syllable of the positive have ai, aw, or w, these must be changed respectively into ei, 0, or y (see Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, § 47, 6): e.g, main, slender main ach*: trwm, htavyy trymach. Note 3. — Sometimes (especially after -dd), -ach, -ed, -af, become -iach, •led, -iaf. In the following adjectives, -ed, forming the Compar. of Equality, and -af, forming the Superlative, are added to the Comparative form, in which the old Brythonic comparative ending -ids (= Latin -ior, -ius) has now been lost. Note. — agos, hawdd and ieuanc may also be compared regularly. Positive Meaning Compar. Proper Meaning agos nigh nes nearer bach small llai smaller buan swift cynt sooner dnvg bad gwaeth worse hawdd easy haws easier hen old hyn older isel low is lower uchel high uwch higher ieuanc f young lau younger hirt long hwy longer mawrf large mwy larger Compar. OF Equal. Meaning Superlative PIeaning nesed as near nesaf nearest lleied as small lleiaf smallest cynted as soon cyntaf soonest gwaethed as bad gwaethaf pjorst' hawsed as easy hawsaf ecuiest hyned as old hynaf eldest ised as low isaf lowest uched as high uchaf highest ieuaf youngest hwyaf longest • mwyaf largest ♦ Where the diphthong is * ai * the change has, historically, taken place in the positive form. * Main ' stands for Mediaeval ' mein.' t Ieuanc, hir, mawr, have Comp. of Equality ieuenged, hired, cymmaint, respectively.
(delwedd F7214) (tudalen 031)	ACCIDENCE 31 Note i. — da, good, has Comp. gweli, better; Superi. goreu, best, Compar. of Equality, daed or cystai, as well. In goreu, the Superlative ending has probably been lost. Note 2. — gwerthfawr, valuabU has Comp. of Equality, gwerthfawroced, as vaiuadie. Comp. gwerthfawrocach, more valuable; gwerthfawrocaf, most valuable. Note 3. —The Comparative of equality was originally an abstract noun in •ed. By its use in such expressions as gwehvch hardded y wiS.d, lit. see the beauty of the country it came to be considered as meaning *mor hardd,* and was gradually employed accordingly. 116 From the nouns blaen, point \ diwedd, end\ 61, track \ pen, head\ are formed the Superlatives blaenaf,yfrj/; diweddaf, last\ olaf, last of all 'y pennaf, chief \ respectively. 117 The Compar. trech, stronger SuperL trechaf, strongest', and the Superlative eithaf, furthest', have no corresponding Positive forms. Remarks. 118 I. As well as by means of the bare Comp. of Equality (rarely used alone), as — as may be expressed as follows: — {a) Ry means of the Comp. of Equality preceded by C3m or can, and followed by a: e.g, cyn wyned a'r eira, as white cts the snmv, {p) By means of cy-, cyf-, cys-, cyn-, prefixed to certain nouns: e,g, cyhyd, as long (fr. hyd, length); cyfled, as broad (fr. lled, breadth) \ cystai, cts well (fr. tal, payment); cymmaint, as large, (fr. maint, size); cynddrwg, as bad (fr. drwg, evil). In cyfuwch, as high, cyf-, is prefixed to the Comparative uwch, higher, {c) In the case of words which do not take -ed, by means of the Positive preceded by mor, cts: e,g, mor fendithiol a'r goleu, as blessed as the light, 119 2. Where no Comparative or Superlative form exists, mwy, more and mwyaf, most, put before the Positive, are used to express the Compar. and the Superi. respectively. e,g, mwy gobeithiol, more hopeful', mwyaf gobeithiol, most hopeful, 120 3. Note the following expressions: — y cyntaf a'r diweddaf, the first and the last', y blaenaf a'r olaf, the former and the latter', y gwyr mwyaf eu clod, the men of most fame; po fwyaf — mwyaf 611, the more — the more j o hynny yn fWy, by so much the more.
(delwedd F7215) (tudalen 032)	32 WELSH GRAMMAR NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. • 3 4 6 7 9 I0 II 12 t3 14 :g 17 T CARDINAL • un pedwar (m.),pedair ) pump, pum* chwEch, chwe* saith iiyth naw (Mg un-arecideg deuddeg tri }-ar-ddeg taw' pedwar}eareddeg pedair pymtbeg unear•bymtheg dau•arsbymtheg • • ORDINAL. cyntaf, unfed. ail, eilfed. trydydd (me), trydedd (f.) pedwerydd(m.),pedwaredd(C) punned chweched seithfed wythfed nawfed degfed unfedearmddeg deuddegfed trydydd) ee trydedd saredd pedwerydd f ettraddeg pedwaredd pymthegfed unfed•arebymtheg eilfed•ar-bymtheg • 18 19 20 21 30 35 36 40 41 50 60 80 90 I00 Iwo 10000 CARDINAL ter dfilar •ar•bymthegeuenaw ped war} earbymtb pedair ugain uneareliugain degmar•hugain pymthegear•hugain un•ar-bymthegear hugain deugain unsa-deugain deg•a•deugain triugain deg•at•thriugain pedwar ugain deg•aephedwar•ugain cant, can* mil f myrdd Imyrddiwn OkbINAL. deutiawkd pedwerydd }earebymtheg pedwaredd ugtinfed unied-arelltigain degfed-arelitigain pymthegied-arehugain unfed•ar-bymtheg•arehugain deugeinfed unfedea•deugain degfedea•deugain triugeinied degfed•a-thriugain pedwar ugeinied degkci•a•phed war ugain aided miffed • • The forms pum, chore, can are employed when a noun immediately follows the numeral. YVIVItrietYD liS7IM
(delwedd F7216) (tudalen 033)	ACCIDENCE 33 122 123 JL24 125 126 127 1. A noun immediately following the cardinal numeral is put in the singular: e.g, pedwar dyn, four men; in the compounds triwyr, three men, seithwyr, seven men, the noun is in the piural. 2. A noun qualified by a composite cardinal number containing two separate numbers, or any composite ordinal number is placed after the first number: e,g, un dyn ar ddgg, eleven men; y trydydd dyn ar ddeg ar hugain, t/ie thirty- third man, 3. If the cardinal number contain more than two numbers, the preposition Ojfrom, may be placed between it and the noun: e,g, tri ar ddeg ar hugain ddynion, thirty-three men, 4. cyntaf, firsts is never used in combination with other numerals: in such combinations unfed is used. 5. deg, ugain, cant, mil (f.), when used as nouns, have the plurals, degau, ugeiniau, cannoedd, miloedd, respectively. 6. Cardinals are used for ordinals, (i) of pages and hymns (2) of years (in dates): e,g> tudalen cant ac ugain, page 120; y flwyddyn pedwar cant, the year 400. Caution. — The initial mutations which take place after numbers should be carefully noted. See Appendix (Initial Mutations). Cardinal Numhers used with Possessive Adjectives. 128 Note the use of the possessive adjective in the following expressions: — ni ein dau, tri, tair, etc., we two, three, etc., chwi eich dau, tri, tair, etc., you two, three, etc. For the third person ill is used. Similarly tj hun, hunan. See § 139, note. e.g. hwy ill tri, th three: in this expression ill trioedd is sometimes used. 129 Note the following adverbs* and adverbial expressions — II. Unwaith, dwywaith, teirgwaith, etc, once twice, thrice, etc. 2. Yn gyntaf, yn ail, yn drydydd, tic, firstly', secondly, thirdly, etc. 3. Ar unwaith, at once. 4. Y tro cyntaf, yr ail dro (or elltro), y tiydydd tro, the first, second, third time. V 5. Ar ddwywaith, ar ddeudro, in two attempts. 6. Yn awr ac eilwaith, now and then. 7. Bob yn un ac un, one by one, 8. Bob yn ddau, bob yn dri, etc., two by two three by three, etc 9. Bob yn ail, alternaiely. D
(delwedd F7217) (tudalen 034)	34 WELSH GRAMMAR 130 131 132 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREWITH. (See also Syntax, §§ 561-589.) Personal Pronouns. 1. Personal Pronoxms in Welsh are of four kinds. (a) Postvocalic (ace), used before the verb after certain words ending in a vowel, (d) Simple. (£) BedupliGated Emphatic, {d) Conjunctive. 2. The Conjunctive is used to express — ' I also/ ' thou also,' * he also,' etc. 3. For b, c, d, the nom. and ace. are alike in form. Obs. — A Conjunctive and Emphatic form is occasionally found tf.. myfinnau, tydithau, etc First Person. Second Person. Third Person. a b c d S.'m P. 'n S. 'th P. 'ch S. 'i (M. and F.) P. 'u (M. and F.) mi ni ti chwi • ef (M.) hi (F.) hwy, hWynt myfi n3mi tyd chwychwi efg,(M.) hyhi (F.) hwynthwy minnau ninnau tithau chwithau yntau (M.) hithau (F.) hwythau 133 Note i .fe stands for ef-ef. As a formal personal pronoun with verbs of all ' persons and numberSi the form fe is used: see § I94» and Appendix to Syntax. 9,g, fe welodd y dyn, th$ man saw, lit. ihsrg saw, i.e. the man. Similarly 6 is used for ef in poetry. 134 Note 2. — The Nom. * 1/ * thou,' * he,' etc is not usually expressed unless emphatic. See Syntax, §§ 561-568. 135 Note 3. — myfl, tydi, efe, etc. in the nom. are now chiefly used with verbs in the 3rd pen. sing'., in such sentences as — myfi yw, it is I; efe oedd yno, it was he that was there; tydi a alwodd, it was you who called. See Syntax, § 319, and Appendix to Syntax.
(delwedd F7218) (tudalen 035)	35 ACCIDENCE 35 136 If the accus. pronoun is emphasized, in addition to the pro-noun before the verb, a simple personal pronoun is added after it : in this case i is used for fi. See Syntax, §§ 565, 566. e.g. fe 'th welais, ' I saw thee ' ; fe 'th welais di, ' I saw thee.' Similarly, fe 'th welais dithau, ' I saw thee also.' 137 Pronouns governed by prepositions are, in many cases, de-noted by pronominal suffixes attached to such prepositions. See §§ 292-296 : e.g. ataf, to me; drostynt, over them. 138 The pronoun of the 2nd pers. sing. ti is used in addressing the Deity, a very intimate friend, a child, or an animal. But, except to the Deity or to an animal, the growing tendency is to use chwi. 139 There is in Welsh no reflexive pronoun. As substitutes, the nouns S. Iran,* hunan, self, P. hunain, selves, qualified by a poss. adj., are used : e.g. fy hun, myself ; ein hunain, ourselves. NOTE.—Several verbs have a reflexive form, made by prefixing the prepo-sition ym, another form of am, ' around.' Sometimes, as in ymladdaf, I 6g ht, this form has a reciprocal meaning : e.g. golchaf, ' I wash ' ; ym-olchaf, ` I wash myself.' Possessive Pronouns. 140 Instead of a pronoun the noun eiddo,poperty, with pronominal suffixes, preceded by the article is used. Similarly the number tin preceded by a possessive adj. and followed by a simple personal pronoun, referring to a singular ; the noun rhai to a plural, and the noun eiddo either to a singular or a plural. SINGULAR. PLURAL. yr eiddof, mine yr eiddot, Mine yr eiddo, his yr eiddi, hers yr eiddom, ours yr eiddoch, yours yr eiddynt, theirs. Also fy un i, fy rhai i, mine ; dy un di, dy rai di, thine; etc. NOTE I.—For emphasis a pers. pron. may be added : e.g.. yr eiddo ef, his. NOTE 2. —Eiddo is now often used for S. 3 fem. * Probably the numeral un, one, with `h' prefixed, used as a noun. Com-pare the Breton un, unan ; see § 128.
(delwedd F7219) (tudalen 036)	36 WELSH GRAMMAR 141 Possessive Adjectives. These are of two kinds: (a) Postvocalic. (h) KormaL The postvocalic forms are used after words ending in a vowel (if no pause intervene). 142 143 144 Singular. Plural. Postvocalic. Normal. Postvocalic. NORMAU fy,* my dy,* thy ei,:his, her ein, our eich, your eu, their 145 146 147 148 Note i. — The fonn S. and P. 3, *w, is only used after the prep, i, into: e.g. i'w, into his her their. Note 2. — For emphasis a personal pron. may be added after the noun: e.g, dy lun di, *M> likeness.' See Syntax, §§ 568, 569. Note 3, — A poss. adj. agrees in gender with the noun to which it refers. Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns. yr, y. (The Definite Article.) (See also Syntax, §§ 581-589.) yr (before vowels and h), y (before consonants): e,g, yr achos, the cause: y gwaith, the work. When, however, after words ending in a vowel, the y of yx is elided, the form 'r is used, even before consonants \: e.g. o'r Ijifrom the house. Note. — Before consonantal w, y is used: e.g. y wraig, the woman. ,» ,, i, yr „: e.g. yr iechyd, the health, (a) hwn, this, (b) h'wnnw, that. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plura;.. hwn (M.) hon (F.) hyn (indecl.) hyn hwnnw (M.) honno (F.) hynny (indecl). hynny Note. — hyn and hynny (S.) are used with pdth, thing. See Syntax, § 580. e.g. y peth hyn, this thing; y peth hynny, that thing. This use is parallel to the dialect use of hyn in y mynydd hyn, this mountain, * Occasionally mau and tau are found for my and thy; e.g. y llyfr mau, my book y ty tau, thy house, t This is a survival from the Old Welsh use of ir (=yr) before both vowels and consonants,
(delwedd F7220) (tudalen 037)	ACCIDENCE 37 149 I. When used as adjectives, hwn and hwnnw follow the noun preceded by the definite article: e,g. J wraig hon, Ms zvoman; y dynion hynny, those men. 150 2. To express a demonstrative adjective of the ist, 2nd or 3rd person, for hwn, hwnnw, are substituted the adverbs, yma, here; yna, ' there (near you) '; acw, yonder-. e.g. y dyn yma, * this man (near me) '; y dyn yna, ' that man (near you) '; y dyn acw, * the man yonder,' 151 3. acw is also sometimes used idiomatically for the demonstrative of the 1st pers.: e.g. y ly acw, * that house o/mineJ 152 4. liwn and hwnnw, hyn and hynny, are used as demonstrative pronouns. The plural then is y rhai hyn, y rhai hynny. As pronouns, hyn and hynny in the singular correspond to the nenter demonstrative pronoun of other languages. 153 5. To form demonstrative pronouns of the ist, 2nd, and 3rd person, yma, yna, acw are added to hwn, hon, hyn in the singular: e.g, hwnyma, *this one (m.)'; honyna, 'that one {(.)'; hynacw, * that thing (yonder) .' In the plural the adverb is substituted for hyn after rhai: e.g. y rhai yma, yna, acw. 154 6. rhai is in origin a sing, noun, being Latin *greg-em,' ace. of ' grex,' Jiockf borrowed. arall, pi. ereill. 155 As adjecdve, arall means another, other \ e.g. dyn arall, another man; y dyn arall, the other man. As pron. arall, means another \ ereill, others. 156 157 y naill — y Hall. 1. This pair of words means, the one — the other \ pi. y naill — y UeiU. y naill is both demonstr.'adj. and pron.; y Hall a pronoun only, the corresponding adjective being arall, used after the noun preceded by the article. 2. * One another ' is expressed by the plural possessive adjectives, ein, eich, en, with gilydd, the mutated form of an old noun cilydd, companion; for ist, 2nd and 3rd pers. respectively: e:g. ein gilydd, eich gilydd, en gilydd. Note. — Ei gilydd (sing.), corresponding to hisfellow in such an expression as each hisffMow, was the original form, but was mistaken for * eu gilydd.'
(delwedd F7221) (tudalen 038)	38 WELSH GRAMMAR Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. 158!• () Interrogative pronoun, pwy? who? {b) Interrogative adjective, pa? 7uhat? 159 2. (a) " IV/iose" is expressed by putting pwy after the noun: e.g. Whose book? llyfr pwy? {b) The interrogative pronoun = English what} is expressed by pa beth? or beth? lit., what thing 1 How vianyf by pa sawl? pa gynnifer? Hoiv much? by pa faint? • 160 3. IVhat kind? is expressed by pa fath? pa ryw? 161 4' pwy and pa are used for both genders and numbers. Examples: ty pwy ydyw? whose hoiise is it? pwy yw? 7vho is he? pa dy y w? which house is it? beth y w? what is it? pa fath yw? what kind is it? pa ryw ddyn oedd? what kind of man was he? Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. (See also Syntax, § 579.) 152 I- ®j ' > ' somethings are used in negative sentences as pronouns: e,g, ni welais neb, / saw no one; ni chefais ddim, / got nothing. In questions and answers neb and dim are used without the negative: e.g. A oedd neb yno? Nac oedd, neb; Was no one there? Noy no one, . 153 2. neb followed by rhyw is used in negative sentences to denote * no — at air: e.g. neb rhyw ddynion, no men at all. N.B. — dim is also used as an adjective in negative sentences: e.g. ni chefais ddim bwyd, I got no food. In questions and answers the negative is usually omitted: e,g. A oes dim lle? Nac oes, ddim. Is there fioroom? No, none. 164 3. In Affirmative sentences the adjective rhyw denotes somex e.g. rhyw ddynion, some man; rhyw beth, some thing. 165 4. Where some means " a portion of," it is expressed by peth: e.g. peth goleu, some light. 166 5. To express the pronouns, some one, some', S. xbjwmL, some one, P. rhjrwrai, some, are used. Note. — Historically, dim and rhyw, like peth, are nouns, and the noun following them was put in the genitive case. * Pa gynnifer and pa faint are followed by the prep. o.
(delwedd F7222) (tudalen 039)	ACCIDENCE 39 167 168 169 Relative Pronouns. (See Syntax, § 570-578 and Appendix.) In idiomatic Welsh a relative clause is frequently expressed without a relative pronoun to introduce it. In this case the verb is generally preceded, in affirmative clauses, by one of the pre-verbai particles a or yr (y); a when the Relative Pronoun, if expressed, would be the Subject or the Object of a finite verb, yp (y) in all other cases. (The form yp is that employed before vowels and h): e,g, y dyn a aeth, the man who went) y ty a welais, the house which I saw; y dyn y gwelais ei dy, the man whose house I saw. Obs. — The origin of * a * and * yr (y) ' is wrapt in considerable obscurity. * a ' may possibly be the Welsh equivalent of the Irish relative pronoun a n, but it should be noted that there is in Welsh no trace of the nasal. As for its employment, it is noticeable that in Mediaeval Welsh it was often employed where we should now use yr (y). For the use of a relative clause without a relative pronoun, compare Irish, where the verb is often preceded by ro- or do- in such clauses. N.B. — Usually, where in English the relative is governed by a preposition or a verb-noun, the construction described in § 167 is employed, the verb being preceded by the pre-verbal particle yp (y), while the required preposition or verb-noun is placed at the end of the relative clause; the preposition with a pponominal saf9x, the verb-noun qualified by a possessive adjeotive, agreeing in person, number and gender with the antecedent of the relative: similarly a noun following whose in English: e,g, y ty yp euthum iddo, the house into which I went. yp „ i'w adeiladu, the house to build which I went. J gYflsLis ti Ab the house whose roof I saw. y M. ei adeiladu, the house the building qf which I saw. The place of single relative forms is largely supplied by means of the combinations yp hwn (S. m.), yp hon (S. f.), y phai (P. com.); y neb, y sawl, who, 7vhoever\ pwy bynnag, whosoever beth bynnag, whatsoever, (For the use of these forms, see Syntax, §§ 573-578.) Obs. — In such a sentence as ' gwelais yr hwn a geisiwch,' / %aw the one whom you seek, the use of ' yr hwn ' seems to have arisen through the substitution t1 >9 rt >» 19 t* of a demonstrative pronoun for a noun in such an expression as ' gwelais y gwr a geisiwch,* / saw the man whom you seek. Hence, in its origin, ' yr hwn '
(delwedd F7223) (tudalen 040)	40 WELSH GRAMMAR 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 is no more a relative pronoun than * y gwr ' would be. Still, the confusion of thought which has obscured its origin and which has led Welshmen to regard it in course of time as a relative pronoun has many parallels in the history of language, and is a factor which must constantly be taken into account in studying linguistic development. The confusion of thought in question took place the more easily as * yr hwn ' was not employed, as time went on, except in conjunction with relative clauses. The interrogative adjective pa, in the combination pa — bynna, is separated from bjfiinag by the noun: e,g, pa ddyn bjrnnag, wAa/ man soever, bynnag may be a mutated form of py nag? who not t hence pwy bynnag means who? who noti pa ddyn bjrnnag) ivhat man f who not? Obs. I. — a is frequently omitted, but the omission of yp (y) is rare. Obs. 2. — In Negative Clauses, na, not (sometimes ni) is substituted for a, yp, y. Caution. — Each word in these expressions should be parsed separately, in order to make their history clear. Definitive Adjectives and Pronouns. 1. *Self* in 'myself,' 'thyself,' etc., when used as a definite pronoun is expressed by means of the nouns htin, hunan, self, pi. hunain, selves preceded by the required possessive adjeotives: see § 139. e,g, dy hun, thyself; ein hunain, ourselva. 2. * The same ' is expressed by yp un: e,g, the same men, yp tin dynion. ADVERBS. 1. -There are in Welsh no adverbs derived from adjectives by 'adding a suffix as in English. An* English adverb like happily is expressed in Welsh by putting before the required adjective the word yn, used also to introduce a predicate noun or adjective. e,g, dedwydd, Iiappy, yn ddedwydd, happily \ dedwyddach, happier; yn ddedwyddach, more happily; dedwyddaf, happiest; yn ddedwyddaf, most happily, 2. The oomparative of equality is the same both as an adjective and as an adverb. 3. Note the following expressions — gwUwell, better and better \ Igwaethwaeth, worse and worse \ 116ilai, less and less; mwyfwy, greater and greater. \
(delwedd F7224) (tudalen 041)	ACCIDENCE 4i 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 VERBS. The Welsh verb has: — {a) Two Voices *: — The Active conjugated with distinct personal suffixes for 1st, 2nd; and 3rd person, singular and plural. The Passive conjugated with one suffix for all persons, singular and plural. Note. — The Passive Voice in Welsh appears to have been originally a form of the verb expressing merely the occurrence of a given action, leaving its subject unexpressed. The object of the action — in present day Welsh, to all intents and purposes, the subject of the Passive Voice — was put in the Accusative Case. That the Welsh linguistic consciousness of the present day tends to look upon what was originally the object of a verb with subject unexpressed, as the subject of a verb in the Passive Voice, seems to be indicated by the fact that the initial letter of the word in question, like that of the subject of an Active Verb, undergoes no mutation, whereas the initial letter of the object of a verb, whether noun or pronoun, always does. With pronouns, however, the older construction is quite clear in the use of the accus. postvocalic form of the pers. pron. after certain words ending in a vowel: eg, fe *m gwelir, / am seett lit, there is seeing {in respect to) me, by the side of gwelir fi. The old impersonal use, too, is exemplified in the case of intransitive verbs like wyf, Jam; deuaf, J come \ SI, I go. (b) Three Moods: — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. {c) Four Simple Tenses of the Indicative.f Name of Welsh Tense. S « ( he h pMei learns ) is learning j dysg { he %\he H \ he Present he learnt dysgodd Aorist was learning dysgai Past Imperfect had learnt _ dysg.isai I Pluperfect Note. — In the irregular verb wyf, I am and its compoundsi we have also a Present Habitual and a Past Imperfect Habitual: e.g, byddaf, I am wont to be; byddwn, / was wont to he. The name Aorist is short for Past Aorist i—Past Indefinite). The name Pluperfect is short for Past Perfect The Future is the same in form as the Present In the verb wyf and its compounds, it as the same form as the Present Habitual: and in the case of other verbs also the Pres. Habitual (see Compound Tenses, below) may be used as Future. See Syntax, §§ 480-483. * Many verbs acquire a reflexive and some a reciprocal sense by the prefixing of the prep, ym = am, around, Cf. § 139, and Syntax, || 463-466. t For the use of these forms, see Syntax, || 467, 525.
(delwedd F7225) (tudalen 042)	42 WELSH GRAMMAR J 94 By means of the verb wyf and the verb-noun preceded by the prepositions yn, />i, or wedi, afterj the following Compound Tenses are formed: — s M iS '-A «• learning he is wont to learn he has learnt he has been learning 'he was learning he used to learn he had learnt he had been learning mae yn dysgu bydd yn dysgu mae wedi dysgu bu yn dysgu yr oedd yn dysgu byddai yn dysgu yr oedd wedi dysgu (buasai yn dysgu)* he will have learnt bydd wedi dysgu he will have been bydd wedi bod yn dysgu learning Name of Welsh Tense. Present Continuous. Present Habitual. Perfect. Perfect Continuous. Past Imperfect Continuous. Past Imperfect Habitual. Pluperfect. Pluperfect Continuous. Future Perfect. Future Perfect Continuous. 85 The Present Habitual, bydd yn dysgu, is also used as a Future. Note.— CarefuUy observe the future aspect often given in Welsh to the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect. For example, just as the present form dysg may mean he ivtll learn, so the Past Imperfect dysgai may mean he would learn, and the Pluperfect dysgasai he would have learnt. The latter is the most common meaning of the simple Pluperfect form in Modem Welsh. See Syntax, §§ 467, 469, 501, 521. L86 For the use of the compound tenses, see Syntax, §§ 475, 477, 494, 496, 515, 517, 523, 524. L87 Caution. — In parsing, it is important to parse the component parts of the compound tenses separately. See Syntax, §§ 524, 525. See Syntax, § 503.
(delwedd F7226) (tudalen 043)	ACCIDENCE 43 188 (d) Two Numbers (Singular and Plural). 189 (e) Three Persons in each number, corresponding to the three persons of |)ronouns. 190 From the verb-stem are also formed — (a) The verb-noun (indeclinable), dysgu, learning, (V) The verb-adjective, dysgedig, learned, erttdite; (dysgadwy), that can be learnt, Obs. I. — The verb-adjective is used only as an attribute. In the case of most verbs it does not exist. See Syntax, §§ 557-560. Obs. 2. — The Welsh language has now no participles. To form participle-equivalents, the verb-noun governed by prepositions is used. See Syntax, §§ 546-556. 191 Caution. — In order to illustrate the structure of the participle-equivalents, the component parts should be parsed separately. Tenses of the Sublunctive. 192 The Subjunctive has only one simple tense — the Present: * e,g. dysgwyf, / may ham, 193 For the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative are used, in all verbs except wyf and caf. See Syntax, §§ 355, 526. 194 Note. — The Welsh verb is frequently preceded by one of the following proclitics: — fe (ml) (see § 133); a, yr (y). See Syntax, Appendix. 1. fe (in the spoken Welsh of N. Wales, ml), is often used before the verb at the beginning of a sentence; e,g, fe redodd y dyn, thi man ran, 2. a is used when the subject or the object of the sentence is put first for the sake of emphasis; e.g, dyn a ddaeth (1/ is) a man who came; a man came, 3. jrr (before a vowel), y (before a consonant) are used: — (a) before forms of wyf Pres. (cont.), Past Imperf. (cont.), Pers. and Impers. at the beginning of a sentence; e.g, jrr wyf yma, / am here. (b) before forms of wyf (auxiliary), when the verb-noun is placed first; eg, gweithio y bum, / have been working, (c) before all verbs when an adverb, or a noun governed by a preposition is placed first, for emphasis; e,g, yma y gwelaf, here I see, (d) after many prepositions used as conjunctions; e,g, cyn yr af, before I go. * This form was often employed in Mediaeval Welsh as a Future Indicative.
(delwedd F7227) (tudalen 044)	44 da Wyf, ' I am '—Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. INDICA TIVE. Prksent. Present Habitual and Future. wyf, ydwvf, I am wyt, ydwyr, thou art mae, oes, sydil, sy, yw,* he is ym, ydym, we are ydi, ydych, yon are maent,ynt, ydynt, they are byddaf, I an v byddi, thou art bydd, he is byddwn, we are byddwch, you are byddant, they are' * s; 1 or I shall be, thou will be etc. Past Imperfect. Past Imperfect Habitual. oeddwn, I was oeddit, thou wast oedd, ydoedd, he was oeddym, we were oeddych, you were oeddynt, they were byddwn, I was \ byddit, thou wast byddai, he was z u jj T wont to be byddem, we were byddech, you were byddent, they were] AoRiST AND Perfect. Pluperfect. bum, I was or hae been buost, thou wast or hast been bu, he was or has been b"od; "'u ] «''' buont,'buant,M'r''''' buaswn, / had been buasit, thou hadst been buasai, he had been buasem, we had been buasech, you had been buasent, they had been SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past Imperfect. byddwyf, bwyf, I be byddych, bych,t thou be byddo, bo, he be byddom, bom, we be byddoch, boch, you be byddont, bont, they be Same as Past Imperf. Habitual Indie or contracted — bawn, I were baet (bait), thou wert bae (bai), he were baem, we were baech, you were baent, they were IMPERATIVE. S. 2. bydd, be\ 3. bydded, let him be P. Same as Pres. Indie. Hab. VERB -NO UN. bod, being * Also ydyw. t byddot, bot and bSch are sometimes found. 1051)
(delwedd F7228) (tudalen 045)	Wyf, ' I am '—Impersonal Forms. 45 INDICATIVE. Present. Present Habitual and Future. ys, ydys byddys, byddis or byddir Past Imperfect. Past Imperfect Habitual. oeddid byddid AORiST AND Perfect. Pluperfect, buwyd buasid or buesid SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE (Past Imperfect). bydder baid (also same as Past Imperfect Indie. Habitual) 196 Note. — These Impersonal forms are used mainly in forming Compound tenses, in order to denote the fact that such and such an action has occurred, is occurring, or wiU occur, without making any unnecessary statement as to its agent or agents, when these are already familiar to the person to whom the statement is made: e.g, in announcing the time of a funeral (fe fyddys 3m cychwyn oddiwrth y ty am dri 6*r gloch), the start from the house will be made at three 0 clock, Wjf, * I am ' — its Compoimd Teiises. 197 1 Since "wyf is itself the auxiliary, its Compound Tenses are, as I far as possible, avoided in good literary Welsh. Remarks. 198 I. For the use of mae, oes, sydd, yw (ydyw) ydynt, see Syntax, §§ 484-490. 199 2. With ped (■■pe), i/, bawn, etc., contract into petdwn, petdet, petie, petdem, petdeckpetdent. 200 3. Similarly ped fuaswja;:6a7 becomes petaswn, etc. 201 4. For Past Imperf. P. i, 2, 3, oedd-em, -ech, -ent are used. 202 Obs. — The following forms are sometimes found: — Pres. Indie. S. I. yttwyf, etc.; S. 2. wyd, ydwyd, yttwyd; Past Imperf. Indie. S. i. yttoeddwn, etc.: Past Imperf. Habitual P. i, 2, 3, byddym, -ych, -ynt: Past Imperf. Subjunctive P. i, 2, 3, beym, beych, beynt: Imperative S. 3» bid.
(delwedd F7229) (tudalen 046)	46 WELSH GRAMMAR :o3 204 205 206 207 Forms of the Verb. A verb-form consists of two parts: I The stem, i,e, the part from which comes a whole group of forms: e.f, dysg-, in dysg-u, dysg-ais, dysg-ai. 2. The ending, i.e. the part which varies in different forms coming from the same stem: e,g, -ed, -ais, -ai from dysg-. Note. — In most endings we can distinguish (a) the final consonant which forms the suffix proper, which is probably pronominal in origin, (6) the connecting vowel: e,g* djrsg-w-n, where n is the consonantal suffix, w the connecting vowel. The simple forms of the verb come from two steins and fall into two groups: — . , A. Personal Forms. 1. From the Present Stem come — Present ( = Future ") I Present ) I Present ) Indicative ) | Subjunctive j | Imperative J Past Imperfect *) I Aorist \ 1 Indicative ) | Indicative (sing, only) j; 2. From the Past Stem come — Aorist Indicative (plural only) | Pluperfect Indicative. B. Impersonal Forms. 1. From the Present Stem come — Present ( = Future) 1 I Present ) I Present ) Indicative ) | Subjunctive J | Imperative j Past Imperfect ) I Aorist ) Indicative j | Indicative J 2. From the Past Stem comes the Pluperfect Indicative. These stems may be illustrated as follows:— (a) Pres. Indie. S. i, giving Present Btem, dysg-af, I learn; \b) Aorist Indie. P. i, giving Past Stem, dysg-as-om, we learnt. Connecting Vowels and Diphthongs. (a) The connecting vowels and diphthongs should 45e carefully noted. (b) Welsh had originally, like Greek and Latin, different conjugations, each with its characteristic vowel, but, owing to the fusion of these into one conjugation, some endings now preserve the characteristic vowel of one conjugation, others of another.
(delwedd F7230) (tudalen 047)	47 Table of Endings— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun and Adjectives. INDICATIVE. Preskst akd FuTune. AOKIST. S. T. -a-f g 3! (No ending)* -S P. I. -w-n 1 g z. -w-ch < S 3. -a-nt fn =■ ■■-'i-'J Added .0 l"dd f"'-s'™- ""■'■ 1"!5, 1 Added to Past UirEHFEcr. Pluperfect. S. I. -w-n\ s a. -i -t 2 pJf-. 1| a. -e-oh 5i 3. -e-nt P>4 S. I. -wn I. -i -t 2 S 3.-ai -g P. I. -e-m -c --e-ch 3| 3. -e-nt SUBJUNCTIVE (Pbes.). 1 S. i.-wy-f; z.-y ch.-e-oh; 3.-0 P. t. -o-m; a. -o-oh; 3. -o-nt IMPERATIVE. S. 2. < No ending)*; 3. -6-d P. Same as Pres. Indie fS--A'OBV. VERB-ADJECTIVES. Sometimes consisting of Pres. Stem only, sometimes with an ending added. -edig -adwy * Sometimes the endine -> is used. For Pres. Ind. S. 3, -ith in N. 'Wales and -iff in S. Wales are often used in colloquiil Welsh.
(delwedd F7231) (tudalen 048)	48 WELSH GRAMMAR Table of Endings -Impersonal Forms 3b INDICA TIVE, Present and Future. AORIST. -i-r (added to Pres. stem) -wy-d (added to Pres. stem) Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. id- (added to Pres. stem) -i-d (added to Past stem) SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. -€-r Remarks. 1. In the suffix -nt, t is sometimes omitted in poetry. 2. The following forms are also sometimes found: ia) For Past Imperf. Indie. P. i, 2, 3, forms in -ym, -ych, -jmt. b) „ Aorist ,, S. 3, V _t» »> >» "• '» » 3» 1*. I. 2, 3, S. 2, S. 3. {d) Pluperfect {i) Pres. Subjunctive (g) Aorist Indie. (Impers. ) (A) Imperative (/) . Pres. (Impers.) S. 3. ft tt i> t» »» t» II ♦» „ -t, -th, -as, -es, -is, -wys. ,, -asam, -esoch, -esont. „ -esym, -esych, -esynt. II -ych. » -wy. „ -ed, -ad, -s.* „ -awt, -awd. „ -otor, -itor, -aton * In liSs, was slatn: e.g. pan las Crist, when Christ was slain, Dysg-af, ' I learn * — Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. )a INDICATIVE, ' Present and Future. Aorist. dysg-»f dysg-i dysg dysg-wn dysg-wch dysg-ant dysg-ais dysg-aist dysg-odd dysgas-om dysgas-och dysgas-ant
(delwedd F7232) (tudalen 049)	ACCIDZNCB 49 Past Imperfect. dysg wn dysg-it dysg-ai dysg-em dysg-ech dysg-ent Pluperfeci-, dysgas-wn dysgas-it dysgas-ai dysgas-ein dysgas-ech dysgas-ent SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). S. I. dysg-wyf; 2. dysg-ych, dysg-ech; 3. dysg-o P. I. dysg-om; 2. dysg-och; 3. dysg-ont IMPERATIVE. S. 2. dysg, dysg-a; 3. dysg-ed P. Same as Pres. Indie. (Also P. 3. dysg-ent.) VERB-NOUN. dysg-u Dysg-af, M learn '—Impersonal Forms. 209 INDICATIVE. Present and Future. dysg-ir Past Imperfect. dysg-id Aorist. dysg-wyd, dysg-ed Pluperfect, dysgas-id, dysges-id SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. dysg-er
(delwedd F7233) (tudalen 050)	50 WELSH GRAMMAR Change of Vowel in the Stem. ■• If the last syllable ot the Stem, present or past, have the vowel a it is changed to e {e,g, in car-, caras-) — {a) In Pres. Indie. S. and P. 2: 6.g, cer-i, thou lovest; cer-wch, you loie, (b) In Aorist Indie. S, i, 2: e.g. cer-ais, / loved; cer-aist, thou lovedst. (c) In Past Imperf. Indie. S. 2: e.g, cer-it, thou wast loving, (d) In Pluperf. Indie. S. 2: e.g, cares-it, thou hadst loved. (e) In Pres. Indie. (Impers.): e.g. cer-ir, one loves, there is loving. (f) In Past Imperf. Indie. (Impers.): e.g. cer-id, one loved, there was loving. (g) In Pluperf. Indie. (Impers.): e. cares-id, one had loved, there had been loving. Formation of Pres. Indie. S. 3. 211 Rules: i . If the last syllable of the Present Stem have or e substitute y: e.g. -clo-, -cly; coll-, cyll; dod-, dyd; ffo-, ffy; golch-, gylch; llosg-, Uysg; rhodd-, rhydd; torr-, tyrr; tro-, try; ateb-, etyb; gwared-, gweryd; cyffro-, cyffry; cyfod-,* cyfyd; deffro-, deffry; diffodd-, diffydd. 212 2. In disyllabic present stems having a or in the last syllable but one, on making the change described in Rule i, for a or substitute e: 'g* gwrandaw-, gwrendy; taraw-, tery; gosod, gesyd; arcs, erys; gwared, gweryd; ateb, etyb. 213 3* monosyllabic present stems having a as their vowel, for a substitute ai or ei. (N:B. — Stems like cadw-, ending in w, are counted as monosyllabic): e.g, saf-, saif; par-, pair; tail-, teifl; cadw-, ceidw; galw-, geilw; dal-, deil. 214 4. In disyllabic present stems having a for their last vowel, before consonants, change a to ei, elsewhere to y: e,g. gwahardd-, gweheirdd; para-, pery; bwyta-, bwyty; atal- also makes etyl. * The contracted form of the pres. stem cod- makes pres. lad. S. 3 cwyd.
(delwedd F7234) (tudalen 051)	ACCIDENCE 51 Remarks. 215 I. In gwant, he pierced; cant, he sang; cyraerth, he took, we have remains of an old Aorist in -t (corresponding to the -t preterite of Irish). 216 2- S6l-» -fj clyw-, hear tal-, pay have Past stems, gwels-, clyws-, tals-.' 217 3- Occasionally the Pres. Subj. of a verb is employed like the Greek Optative to express wish: e,g, gwel-wyf, may I seel 218 4« In some verbs whose present stems end in 1, n, air, id, yg, iw, a consonantal i is inserted before endings other than i, and before -as- of the past stem: e.g, dal-, dal-iaf, dal-iasom; arwain-, arwein-iaf, arweiniasom; cynnyg-, cynnyg-iaf, cynnyg-iasom; erfyn-, erf)m-iaf, erfyn-iasom. To the contrary, tal-af. 219 5* ' verb-noun bwrw, castings corresponds the present stem bwri-, past stem bwrias-. 220 6- From taw-, be silent comes Pres. Indie. S, 3, tau, he is silent. Obs. — Forms like macco (Pres. Subj. S. 3. Pers.) and maccer (Pres. Subj. Impers.) of magaf, / nursey have arisen from mag-ho and mag-her, respectively; ho and her being the regular forms of these suffixes in Med. Welsh. Contracted Verbs. 221 In conjugating the verbs clyw-, hear; taw-, be si/ent, where two w*s would otherwise come together, one is usually dropped: e.g, Pres. Indie. P. i, clywn, we hear, for elyw-wn. 222 Similarly in the case of einiaw-, dine; galw-, ca/I; gwrandaw-, listen; enw-, name. The contractions of verbs whose present stems end in 6- or hi will be seen from the following paradigms (pp. 52, 53). Note. — The forms enclosed in brackets are uncontracted.
(delwedd F7235) (tudalen 052)	52 Stems in 6 — Personal Forms and Verb-Noun, /jVD/CAr/yE. Present and Future. AORIST. trof, I turn trois troi troist try trodd trown troisom • trowch troisoch tront troisant Past Imperfect. Pluperfect, trown troiswn * troet (troit) troisit Iroe troisai troem troisem troech troisech troent troisent SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). s. I. (trowyf); 2. (troech) 1 P. 3. tront IMPERATIVE, s. 2. tro; 3. (troed) troed P. Same as Present Indie. VERB -NO UN. troi Stems in 6 — Impersonal Forms. i3b INDICATIVE. Present and Future.* troir Past Imperfect. troid AORIST. (trowyd), trowd, troed Pluperfect. troisid * SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. (trder) * For tro-ysom, etc.; tro-yswn, etc; troysid, etc. 224a 224b
(delwedd F7236) (tudalen 053)	53 Stems in ha— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun V INDICA TIVE. Present and Future. Aorist. cryfhaf, I strengthen (cryfheais) cryfhai (cryiheaisi) cry f ha (cryfhaodd) cryfhawn cryfhasom cryfhwch cryfhdsoch cryfhint cryfhdsant Past Imperf cryfhiwn cryfhit cryfhai cryfhaem cryfhaech cryfhaent ECT. Pluperfect. cryfhdswn cryfhdsit cryfhdsai cryfhdsem cryfhdsech cryfhdsent SUBJUNCTIVE (Prrs.) (cryfhawyf) S. 2. cryfha; IMPERATIVE. 3. cryf haed P. Same as Pres. Indie, (cry f haed) VERB-NOUN cryfhau Stems In hd — Impersonal Forms. INDICA TIVE. TPresent and Future. cryfhdr Past Imperfect. cryfhid Aorist. (cryfhawyd) cryf haed Pluperfect cryfhdsid SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE (cryfhier)
(delwedd F7237) (tudalen 054)	54 IVELSH GRAMMAR Expression of the Passive. C25 I. To express the Passive, the impersonal forms of the verb are employed. 228 2. If the subject of the passive verb in English be a personal pronoun, the pronoun can be expressed in Welsh in two ways — (a) After certain words ending in a vowel, such as na, fe, oni, y, by means of the postvocalic accns. form, immediately preceding the impersonal form of the verb: e,g, fe 'm gwelir, / am seen ] lit: there is seeing (in respect to) me, {b) By means of the simple form of the personal pronoun placed immediately after the verb: 'g' gwelir fi, / am seen, 227 3- Form (a) makes it highly probable that the apparent subject of a passive verb in Welsh is, in its origin, the object of an impersonal verb with subject unexpressed. 228 4- I" colloquial Welsh, which tends far more than the literary language to employ compound forms, the verb oaf, / obtain governing a verbnnoun qualified by possessive adjectives, is largely used to express the passive: e,g, yr wyf yn cael fj mlino, = fe 'm blinir or blinir fi, / am troubled, (Jit, I am getting my troubling,) Obs. — For the use of the verb-noun qualified by possessive adjectives, see § 241, and Syntax, §§ 544, 545. The Verb-Noun. 229 The Verb-noun, answering partly in usage to the gerund, partly to the infinitive of other languages, is treated in the Celtic languages much more like a noun than it is, for example, in Latin or even in English (see Syitax, §§ 536-549). For instance, in the parent Celtic speech, a noun depending on a verb-noun was put, not in the accusative, but in the genitive case, and hence it is, that the initial letter of a noun * governed ' by a verb-noun, like that of a noun depending on a noun, is unchanged, while that of the object of a verb changes. (See Initial Mutations, § 61): e,g, c\yw3i\s ga.n J I heard a song; wedi clywed can, a/ter hearing a song. Note. — The Welsh construction in such an expression, for example, as drwy ddarUen Uyfir, by reading a hook, corresponded more closely in its origin to such a phrase as * by the reading of a book,' than to the Latin construction Megendo librum,' or the English 'by reading a book.' The Genitive in question would correspond to the Objective Genitive. See Syntax, § 346I).
(delwedd F7238) (tudalen 055)	ACCIDENCE 55 Endings of the Verb-Noun. 230 " some cases the verb-noun is identical in form with the present stem: e.g. n'xdi changing \ byw,h'vi'ng; cy nr\ul\, gaf/ierirrg, 231 In many cases, however, the verb-noun is formed by adding to the present-stem an ending, sometimes terminating in a consonant but usually consisting of one of the vowels, a, i, o (or io), XL These present stems are frequently identical in form with nouns or adjectives. Rules for the Formation of Verb-Nouns. 232 Rules: i. Present stems having in their last syllable, an, iw, wy, and some with i, uand ai, take o: g.g, \\i[-o, Jlowing; heul-o, shining (used of the sun); briw-o, hurling; mwyd-o, soaking; twyll-o, deceiving; hud-o, enticing, 233 2. Many present-stems having in their last syllable ei (fr. aiX y or u (when pronounced as i), take -io (with consonantal i): e.g. seil-io, founding; gwib-io, darting; ffag-io, feigning; lliw-io, colouring; gwyl-io, watching. 234 3. Present stems, whose last syllable has the vowel or the diphthong oe, or which end in w, take i: 'g' llog-i, hiring; crog-i, hanging; poer-i, spitting; oer-i, growing cold; sylw-i, observing; also cyflawn-i, _/W-filling. On the contrary, hoel-io, nailing; coel-io, believing, 235 4' Most present stems having in the last syllable vowels or diphthongs other than those enumerated, take n, but i is not uncommon after syllables with e or ei: e,g, tynn-u, drawing; crynn-u, trembling; penn-n, appointing; on the contrary, me-i, reaping; per-i, causing; gen-i, being born; gwein-i, serving; gwaedd-i (pronounced gweidd-i), shouting, 236 5. Many causative and inceptive verbs derived from noxins and adjectives take the ending hau: eg, dyfr-hau, watering; dydd-han, becoming daylight; llwfrhau, becoming timid. 237 6. Some verb-nouns denoting to gather derived from plural and collective nouns denoting fruits, etc., take the ending a. e,g, afaleu-a, gathering apples; cneu-a, gathering nuts. Similarly, cardot-a, begging; ceinioc-a, collecting pence; and also bwyt-a, eating.
(delwedd F7239) (tudalen 056)	56 WELSH GRAMMAR 338 Other endings of the verb-noun are — an (ian) and fan, found in a few frequentative verbs; ed (ied); ain; eg; yll: eg. sefyll-ian, loitering; hed-fan, hovering; clyw-ed, hearing; ystyr-ied, considering \ llef- ain, crying \ rhed-egf, running-, ehed-eg,/>/; sef-j]!, standing. 239 The present stem ysgydw-, shahe has the verb-noun, ysgwyd; the present stem chwardd-, laugh, has the verb-noun chwerth-in; the present stem diang-, escape, has the verb-noun dianc. The Verb-Nonn after Prepositions. 240 The verb-noun governed by prepositions is extensively employed in Welsh, to supply the place of participles, and to form phrases equivalent in meaning to temporal, final, concessive and other clauses. (See Syntax 346b): e, yn dyfod, gan ddyfod, coming \ wedi dyfod, having come \ ar ddyfod, about to come; dan ddyfod, while coming; erbyn dyfod, by the time that {he) came-, er dyfod, though {he) came, 241 In these and similar phrases, in order to indicate who or what performs the action implied in the verb-noun, two forms of expression are used: — {a) As in * wedi (i'r-dyn) ddyfod,' * wedi (i-mi) ddyfod,' where the required noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition i, to, is inserted between the preposition governing the verb-noun and the verb-noun which it governs. {b) As in * wedi-dyfod o'r dyn,' ' wedi-dyfod ohonof,' where the required noun or pronoun is introduced by the preposition o,from and placed after the verb-noun. Caution. — In parsing expressions of this kind each word should be parsed separately. Note i. — If the agent of the action expressed by the verb- noun is denoted by a pronoun, the possessive adjective may also be employed: e.g. wedi ei ddyfod, after he canie, lit. after his coming; wedi ei hwyrhau hi, cfter it had become IcUe. Note 2. — The verb-noun qualified by a poss. adj. and governed by the prep, wedi, afters is frequently used to express the equivalent of the English perfect participle passive: e.g, mae y dyn wedi ei ladd, the man has been kiUed lit., the man is after his killing.
(delwedd F7240) (tudalen 057)	57 ACCIDENCE 57 Irregular Verbs. 242 These may be classified as follows—'. Compounds of iikyf, illustrated by their verb-nouns, thus—(a) Prepositional, can-fod, perceiving; han-fod, existing; dar fod, ending; gor-fod, overcoming; cyf-ar-fod, meeting. For can, han, gor, see Syntax, §§ 446, 449, 450. (b) Adjectival, ad-na-bod, knowing [Latin, cognoscere] ; cyd-na-bod, recognizing; gwy-bod, knowing [Latin, scire] ; cly-bod, hearing. OBs.—Ad-na-, is for ad-gna-; gna- being the same root as yvo)-- in Gk. yt-yv(L-o-Kw and gno- in Latin co-gno-sco ; gwy-, is for gwydd-, the same root as Latin vid-eo, Gk. 18-0'w for Ft8-0'w ; cly- is the same root as Greek KX15-(0, to hear. Similarly cyd-na- for cyd-gna-. N.B.—In the compounds bad becomes 136d. 243 2. Verbs from old stems in ag-(-og) [Latin ag-o, Greek ay-(0] and el- [Gk. A.-6461.v] : Pres. Ind. S. 1, 1-f (a, contr. from ag-a), I go; Pres. Subj. S. r, el-wyf, I may go ; d-eu-af, d-ö-f Co contr. fr. -ogo-), I come; d-el-wyf, I may come ; gwn-ft-f, I make (a for aga-) gwn-el-wyf, I may make. 244 3. Two verbs which in some forms omit the last consonants of the present stem, and in others make it voiceless, namely, cat, I obtain (present stem caf-, and in some forms call-) ; rhoddaf, I give (present stem rhodd-, occasionally rhoth-) ; also arhosaf, I wait, present stem aros-, which occasionally omits s. e.g. Pres. Ind. P. 1, cawn, we obtain; rhown, we give. Pres. Ind. S. 1, arho-af, I remain. Pres. Subj. S. 3, caffo, he may obtain; (rhotho), he may give. 245 4. dygaf, I bring, and adolwyn, (obs.) beseeching, in which the final consonant of the stem dwg- is obscured in the verb-noun. Hun makes Aorist S. 3. dilg. adolwyn is now used only in the Imperative S. 2. attolwg, pray? From attolwg has been formed a new verb attolyg-u, beseeching, with regular conjugation. 246 5. piau (impers.) it belongs ; moes, give ! hwde, receive ! (used only in the Imperative, S. 2) ; meddaf, I say ; ebe, he says (both used in introducing quotations); tawr (impers.), it matters ; dylwn, I ought (used in Past Imperf. and Pluperf. only). 247 6. The nouns rhaid, necessity ; dichon, sufficiency ; which are treated partially as verbs. * The history of this apparent omission probably is, that a new method of conjugation based upon the verb-noun aros has been developed.
(delwedd F7241) (tudalen 058)	58 WELSH GRAMMAR Compounds of * wyf.' A. Prepositional. 248 I. can-fod. — This verb is treated throughout as a compound of wyf: similarly, dar-gan-fod, to discover, e.g, Pres. and Fut. Indie. S. i, can-fyddaf, I Perceive or shall perceive ', Past. Imperf. S. i, can-fyddwn; Past Imperf. (Impers.), can-fyddid; Aorist Ind., cin-fom. The following forms were once used: — Pres. Ind. S. I, can-wyf; S. 3, cenyw; Past Imperf. S. 3, can-oedd, older canh-oedd. 249 2- han-fod. — The verb-noun here given is now used only as an abstract noun, meaning essence. This verb is occasionally used in Past Imperf. S. 3, han-oedd, he was descended', Pres. Subj. S. 2, hen-fFych! hail / 250 han-oedd having been mistaken for han-odd, Aorist S. 3 of a stem han-, a verb-noun han-u has been formed, and the stem han- is conjugated regularly like dysg-. 251 3. dar-fod. — This verb is conjugated as a compound of wyf: e,g, Pres. and Fut. Indie. S. i, dar-fyddaf; Past Imperf. S. I, dar-fyddwn; (Impers.) dar-fyddid. The following forms were once used: — Pres. Ind. S. i, dar-wyf; S. 3, deryw; Past Imperf. S. 3, dar-oedd; Pres. Subj. S. I, dar-ffwyf; Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. 3t dar-ffai; Imperative, S. 3, der-ffld. 252 4. gor-fod. — This verb is conjugated mainly as a compound of wyf: e, Pres. and Fut. Indie, S. i, gor-fddaf; Past Imperfec S. I, gor-fyddwn. The following forms were once used: Pres. Ind. S. I, gor-wyf; S. 3, gor yw; Pres. Subj. S. I, gor-flPwyf; Past. Imperf. Subj. S. 3, gor-£&d. 253 * — gorfod is now largely used to express the idea of obliga tion: e,g. in such an expression as *yr wyf yn gorfod,' I am obliged though literally this sentence should mean, / am compelling, or overcoming. The sentence in question is probably a condensed form of *yr wyf yn fy ngorfod,' / am being compelled. The original formation of gor-fod having been forgotten, a new verb-' noun gor-fodi, to compel, has been formed, with regular conjugation: e,g, gorfodir fi, I am compelled.
(delwedd F7242) (tudalen 059)	ACCIDENCE 59 2S4 5. oyf-ap-fod. — This verb has Present and Future Indie. S. i, cyf-ar-fydd-af, etc.; Past Imperfect S. i, cyf-ar-fyddwn, etc.; Aorist S. I, cyf-ar-fum, like bum. The remaming forms in use are conjugated like wyf. Note. — The forms canwyf, etc., hanwyf, etc.» darwyf, etc.» gorwyf, eic.» were mostly used with Perfect meaning, possibly on the analogy of the Perfect forms of if, deuaf and gwnSf. B. Adjectival. ad-na-bod, cyd-na-bod, gwy-bod, cly-bod. 255 I. ad-na-bod, knowing [Latin, cognoscere]. adnabod is treated partly as a compound of wyf, partly as a regular verb from present-stem adwaen-. INDICATIVE (Pres. not Fut.). SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). adwaen (also ad wen) adwaen-ost edwyn adwaen-om adwaen-och adwaen-ant • adwaen-wyf, etc., also adna-byddwyf, and contracted adna-pwyf adne-pych adna-po adna-pom adna-poch adne-pynt 266 Note i. — The other forms are conjugated like wyf: e.g, Fut. adna-byddaf; but, in addition, we have, from adwaen-, Past Imperf., adwaen-wn; (Impers.) adwaen-id; Aorist Indie. S. 3, adwaentOdd: Pres. Indie. (Impers.) adwaen-ir; Aorist (Impers.), adwaen-wyd; Pres. Subj. and Imperative (Impers.), adwaen-er. Note 2. — For Past Imperf. Indic. (Pers.) S. 3, adwaen-ad was at one time used. Note 3. — adwaen is probably an old Perfect form. 2. oyd-na-bod, recoizing. oydnabod is conjugated as a compound of i&yf: Pres. and Fut, Ind. cydna-byddaf, etc. Aorist Indic. S. i, cydnd-bum.
(delwedd F7243) (tudalen 060)	60 WELSH GRAMMAR 3. gn-bod, knowing [Latin, scire]. 357 gwybod is treated mainly as a compound of wyt but partly as a regular verb from present stem gwydd-. 258 259 INDfCATIVE (Pres. not FUT.). ■ ■ ■ ' 1 SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). gwn gwydd-ost gWyr gwydd-om gwydd-och gwydd-ant gwy-byddwyf, etc., also contracted, gwy-pwyf, eta » Note i. — The remaining tenses are conjugated like wyf: e.g, Fut. Indie, gwy-byddaf; but, in addition, we have — Past Impcrf. Indie, gwydd-wn; (Impers.) gwydd-id; Pres. Indie. (Impers.) gwydd-&, gwydd-ys, or gwydd-is (also contracted into gwys). Note 2. — For Past Imperf. Ind. S. 3, gwydd-iad was at one time used. 4. cly-bod, hearing, (a) cly-bod, the verb-noun (rare), is now used only as an abstract noun, meaning hearing, (p) The following forms parallel to this verb-noun are used side by side with the regular forms from clyw-, hear- — Aorist Indie. S. and P. i, 2, 3, cly-btoi, -biiost, -bn, -biioin, -biiocli, -buont- or biiant. Note. — From the stem dy- comes the only remnant of the old Reduplicated Perfect in Welsh, namely, the obsolete Perf. S. 3, dglea (cigle), he has heard. From this stem also came an Imper. S. 2, de-gle, hear. Verbs containing the roots ag- (og-), and el-. 11 I go \ deuaf, I come \ gwnaf. Intake, The verb-nouns are — myned,*///; dyfod, dod, coming \ gwneyd or gwneuthur, making, (For myned, mynd is also used.) (a) The present stems of these verbs are — a-: e,g, 4-f(=a-af) el-: e.g. el-wyf d-eu-: e,g, d-eu-af (d- for dy-) d-el-: e,g, d-el-wyf gwn-a-: e,g, gwna-f (=gwn-a-af) gwn-el-: e,g, gwn-el-wyf. {p) The past stems of these verbs are — aeth-: e,g, euth-um els-: e,g, els-id d-aeth-: e,g, d-euth-um d-els-: e,g, d-els-id gwn-aeth-: e,g, gwn-eutli-um gwn-els-: e,g. gwn-els-id. 260 af, deuaf, gwnaf— Personal Forms. INDICATIVE,
(delwedd F7244) (tudalen 061)	6l Present and Future. af ei a, el awn ewch ant deu-af or dof deu-i or doi daw, del deu-wn or down deu-wch or dowch deu-ant or dont gwn-af gwn-ei gwn-a, gwn-el gwn-awn gwn-ewch gwn-ant Past Imperfect. awn, also el-wn, etc (reg.) ait, or aet di, or ae aem aech aent deu-wn, etc, down del-wn, etc, doit, or doet (reg.) doi, or doe doem doech ddent gwn-awn, also gwnel- -wn, etc (reg.) gwn-ait, or gwn-aet gwn-ai, or gwn-ae gwn-aem gwn-aech gwn-aent Aorist. S. 3. aetk, daeth, gwn-aeth " S. I. -nm euth- deuth- gwn-euth- 2. -ost -P. I. -om 2. -och 3. -ant Pluperfect. aeth- daeth- gwnaeth- -wn, etc (reg.) SUBJUNCTIVE (Present). el- 1 del- j-'wyf, etc. (reg.) gwnel-j IMPERATIVE, S. 2. (dos)* 3. aed; el-ed (P. as Pres. Indie) S. 2. (ty-red+) S. 3. deu-ed del-ed dded (Plural J as Pres Indie) S. 2. gwn-& S. 3. gwn-aed gwn-el- ed (Plural as Pres. Indie.) r. as rres. inaic; riurai asrres inaic; riurai as I'res. inau * dos it of doubtful origin. X P- 2. dewch is often found. t ty-red is the Imper. rhftd, run with prefix dy • d being hardened to t.
(delwedd F7245) (tudalen 062)	62 WELSH GRAMMAR af, deuaf, gwnaf — Impersonal Forms. 251 I INDICATIVE. Present and Future. eir deu-ir gwn-eir Past Imperfect. eid or elid deu-id, del-id, or doid gwn-eid, or gwn-elid Aorist. aed or aeth-pwyd deuwyd or daethpwyd gwn-ied or gwn-aethpwyd Pluperfect. 1 1 aeth- or els- \ daeth- or dels- l-id gwn-aeth- or gwnels- j 1 1 SUBJUNCTIVE, el- del- gwn-el-J -er Note i. — The forms Si, dSl and gwnSl have arisen by the loss of the sufiix from elo, delo, gwiielo, respectively. In Modem Welsh they are seldom employed except to express the Future Indicative, but m Mediaeval Welsh they were constantly employed as Subjunctives also. Note 2. — In the forms aeth-pwyd, daeth-pwyd, and gwnaeth-pwyd, pwyd, with hardening of b to p (cf. § 52), stands for bwyd, a contracted form of bu-wyd, Aorist and Perfect Imperson of wyf. Compare the Mediaeval Welsh form, ducpwyt, was led; gorucpwyt, was maae\ gwanpwyt, was pierctd\ dywespwyt (for dywed-pwyt) was said.
(delwedd F7246) (tudalen 063)	ACCIDENCE 63 Obs. I. — The forms aeth, daeth, gwnaeth, are probably old deponent perfect participles, which have served as bases for the Aorist forms S. 1, euth-um, S. 2, euth-osi, on the analogy of bum, buost. Obs. 2. — In addition to the forms already given, the following may be noted — {a) Perfect forms — from af: Perf. S. i, edd-wyf; 2, edd- wyd; 3, edd-yw. „ gwn-af: Perf. S. i, gwn-edd-wyf; 3, gwn-edd-yw. „ deu-af: Perf. S. 3, dodd-yw, doth yw, d edd-yw. {b) Pluperfect forms — from af: Pluperf. S. 3, ath-oedd. „ deu-af: Pluperf. S. 3, dath-oedd „ gwn-af: Pluperf.S. 3, gwnath-oedd, „ „ (Impers.), gwnath-oeddid. [c) Aorist forms — corresponding to dy-fod, are the Aorist forms — S. 3, dy-fu, P. 3, dy-buant. Obs. 3. — In the forms edd-yw, dodd-yw (doth-yw), gwn-edd-yw, ath-oedd, dath-oedd, gwn-ath-oedd, and gwn-ath-oeddid, we have in single words, forms which are periphrastic: The last syllable in each case clearly consists of S. 3, Pres. and Past Imperf. of Wyf. The first syllable appears to be an old participle, but its precise original form is not certain. Verbs omitting the last consonant of the Present- Stera. oaf, / obtain; rkoddaf, / give; arhosaf / remain, 262 In the verbs caf and rhoddaf, the assimilation of a consonant coming between two vowels has been carried to a point further than is normally the case in Welsh with b and d but regular in the case of g, until at last the consonant has disappeared. In these two verbs, by the side of the phenomenon just described, we have also the contrary phenomenon of dissimilation, whereby, for example, caf-el has become caff-el (also caff-ael).
(delwedd F7247) (tudalen 064)	64 2B3 264 Caf— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. INDICATIVE, Prrsent and Future. Aorist. caf cef-ais, (ces) cei or cai, ceff-i cef-aisr, (cest) caiff caf-odd, cadd, caf-as, cas cawn caws-om cewch caws-och cSnt caws-ant Past Imperfect. cawn cait, ceit or caet cS.i or cle cSem cSech cSent Pluperfect. caws-wn, etc (reg.) SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past Imperfect. caff-wyf, etc. (reg.) Same as Past Imperf. Indie also caff-wn, etc IMPERATIVE, S. 3. caed, caff-ed P. 3. cant VERB -NO UN, cael, caffael, (caffel). Caf— Impersonal Forms. INDICA TIVE. Present and Future. ceir, ceff-ir Past Imperfect. ceid Aorist. caed, caf-wyd (cahat, cahad) Pluperfect. caws-id Present. caff-er SUBJUNCTIVE. Past Imperfect. Same as Past Imperfect Indie, also ceff-id IMPERATIVE. caff-er
(delwedd F7248) (tudalen 065)	ACCIDENCE 65 265 Rhoddaf— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. (The forms given in tliis and the following paradigm are found side by side with forms regularly conjugated). INDICA TIVE, Present and Future. rhof rhoi rhy, dy-ry rhown rhowch rhont Past Imperfect. rhown rhoit, rhoet rhoi, rh5e rhoem rhoech rhoent Aorist. rhois rhoist rhodd, rhoes rhois-om * rhois-och rhois-ant Pluperfect. rhois-wn,* etc. (reg.) IMPERATIVE. S. 2. rho, dy-ro; 3. rhoed I P. Same as Pres. Indie. VERB -NO UN. rhoi 266 Rhoddaf— Impersonal Forms. INDICATIVE. Present. rhoir Past Imperfect. rhoid AORIST. rhoed, rhowd Pluperfect. rhois-id * Obs. — For Pres. Subj. S. 3, rhotho is found, illustrating the process by which the corresponding form caffo from caf-, has been produced. * These forms arc for rho-ysom, etc; rho-yswn, etc.; rho-ysid, etc
(delwedd F7249) (tudalen 066)	66 WELSH GRAMMAR Arhosaf. 287 In this verb, when the accent falls upon -08, it is usually preceded by h: e,g, Pres. Indie S. i, ar-hoa-af, 268 The following forms, with omission * of 8, are sometimes found — Pres. Ind. S. 3, ery; Past Imperf., arhown, arhoit, arhoi (6e), etc, like trown; Imperative S. 2, aro, in cyf-aro. Dygaf and Adolwyn. 269 The peculiarities of these verbs have been already explained, § 245- Obs. — The old auxiliary gonic, gonig, he did is an Aorist S. 3 of this formation. Plau. 270 I* () piaU) used impersonally to express // belongs is employed as follows — Present C S. i, mi, 2, ti 3, ef, hi I biau,=/«, /;i« Indicative X P. i, mi, 2, chwi, 3, hwy / \lji) Who owns f is expressed by p biau? [c) A noun may take the place of the pronoun: e£, leuan biau, leuan owns, 2. For the other tenses, one of the following compound forms is placed after the pronoun, — For Past Imperf. Continuous, 5edd „ „ „ Habitual, fyddai .. Future, fydd piauorbiau „ Aonst, m ( * „ Pluperfect, fuasai „ Pres. Subjunctive, fo or fyddo e.g. mi oedd biau, I owned. \ Mdes and Hwde. 271 mdes, give; hwde, accept are used only in the Imperative S. 2, moes; P. 2, moeswch; S. 2, hwde; P. 2, hwdiwch. Meddaf and Ebe. 272 I* meddaf, I say and ebe, he said, sue employed in introducing quotations. * The omission is probably only apparent. See § 224, Note;
(delwedd F7250) (tudalen 067)	ACCIDENCE 67 a. meddaf is conjugated in Pres. and Past Imperf. Indie, for all persons and numbers. 3. ebe (also found as ebai, ebr, ebra) is used in Past Imperf. Indie. S. 3 only. Note. — In Mediaeval Welsh the form heb yr was used as two separate words, yr having been mistaken for the definite article: hebyr, the correct spelling, is an old deponent form ending in -r. Tawr or Dawr (Impersonal). 273 dawr is found in ni'm dawr, // does not matter to me. From the intensive form di-ddawr, eome the eommon words, dy-ddor-ol, interesting \ dy-ddor-deb, interest. Note. — In Mediaeval Welsh a personal form, dorwn, 1 should care, was also employed. Dylwn, * I ought' 2T4 dylwn, used only in the Past Imperf. and Pluperfeet to express obligation, takes a verb-noun as its direct object: e,g. Ni ddylai fyned, Ae ought not to go, Ni ddylasai fyned, he ought not to have gone. Note. — In Mediaeval Welsh a present form, dylyaf, was also employed. Rhaid and Dichon. 275 rhaid, necessity and dichon (digon), sufficiency are in reality nouns, but, owing to the omission of yw in the expressions, ' rhaid y w,' * diehon yw,' they are treated partly as if they were impersonal verbs. For instance, like verbs, they may be preceded by the negative adverbs, nl, na, not, Bhaid. 275 I. In sentences denoting present time, rhaid may be used either alone, or in conjunction with yw: €,g, rhaid j mi fyned, or, rhaid yw i mi fyned, I must go: lit going is a necessity for me: the predicate-noun rhaid being put first in the sentence for the sake of emjasis. 2. For thPast Imperfect and other tenses, three forms of expression atossible 1 e.g, (for*ist Impierf.) rhaid oedd; yr oedd yn rhaid; yr oedd raid '\ 3. Negative sentences are expressed as follows: — Pres. Indie, ni raid; Past Imperf. nid oedd raid; and similarly with other tenses. I I
(delwedd F7251) (tudalen 068)	68 WELSH GRAMMAR Dichon. 277 I. Dichon is employed — (a) In affirmative statements to express the possibility that something: took place (in the Pres. Indie, with or without yw). {b) In negative sentences and questions, to denote the impossibility, or to question the possibility that something shonid take place. N.B. — The construction is the same as that of rhaid. § 276. €,g, dichon i mi fyned, // is possible that I went. ni ddichon i mi fyned, // is not possible for me to go. A ddichon i mi fyned? is it possible for me to go t 2. Tenses other than the Present Indicative are expressed by using a form of Wyf in the tense required: e.g, dichon oedd, etc., // was possible, etc; nid oedd dichon. 3. Instead of the construction with the preposition i given above (e,g. dichon i mi, // is possible for me), dichon is also not unfrequently found followed or preceded by a subject *: e.g, A ddichon ffydd ei gadw ef? Can faith save him t Pwy a ddichon sefyll? IVho can stand? Verbs denoting phases of the weather, etc. 278 I* Such verbs have as their subject the simple personal pronoun hi, S. 3, Feminine: See Syntax, § 316. e,g. y mae hi yn gwlawio, // rains, „ „ „ „ oer, // is cold. 2. hi is also used in such impersonal expressions as: — y mae hi yn hawdd siarad,;/ is easy to talk. Some tendencies shown in the modern treatment of the verb. 79 In colloquial Welsh, and also, to no small extent, in Literary Welsh, in spite' of its conservative instincts, there is now a strong analytical tendency, owing to which the conjugation of the verb tends to be modelled on a new basis, by means of auxiliaries, as a rule either taking a verb-noun as their direct object or followed by a verb-noun governed by a preposition; so that, for example, the Pluperfect f Indicative is now almost entirely supplanted by the corresponding compound expression. See Syntax, §§ 472, 525. * In this construction a form dichyn was at one time frequently employed, t When employed to express I had; thou hadsty etc.
(delwedd F7252) (tudalen 069)	ACCIDENCh 69 280 For this purpose the following verbs are largely used as auxiliaries: — {a) caf, * I get,' * I obtain/ —to express the passive voice, with a verb-noun as its direct object. e,g, caf odd ei weled, he was seerij lit., he obtained his seeing, {b) gallaf, ' I am able '; medraf, * I am able,' with a verb-noun as direct object, and also dichon, ' it is possible, to express a kind of potential mood: e,g, nis gallaf fyned; ni fedraf fyned; nid oes dichon i mi fyned, / canmt go. (For the construction of dichon see §§ 276, 277.) (f) gwnaf, *I do/— with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an imperative mood: e,g, gwnewch frysio, do make haste lit, make a hastening, (d) wyf, followed by a verb- noun governed by a preposition to form compound tenses as shown in § 1 84. (e) gwnaf, with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an aorist and a future: e.g, Wnaethost ti fyn'd am dro? Did you go for a walk? Wnewch chwi aros yno yn hir? lyi/l you stay there long? (/) darfa, in Aorist S. 3; followed by i mi, i ti, iddo, etc., and a verb-noun as subject to express a perfect: e.g, A ddarfu i ti orphen? Have you finished 1 lit, Has a finishing taken place for you? 281 Obs. — In writing Welsh, these analytical modes of expression should be used sparingly, and only for the purpose of expressing shades of meaning which the simple forms cannot easily express. 282 Caution. — Parse the component parts separately. See Syntax. §§524,525-. QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS. I. Questions. 1. In Welsh the emphatic word is usually placed first in the sentence; this applies to questions as well as to statements. 2. If the emphasis fall on the verb, the interrogative particle is a: e.g. A wnaethost ti hynny? Did you do that? 3. If the emphasis fall on some other word, the interrogative particle is ai: eg, Ai dyn welodd y bachgen? Was it a man that the boy saw? Ai yno y mae efe? Is it there that he is f 4. The particles a and ai are not unfrequently -omitted. 283
(delwedd F7253) (tudalen 070)	JO WELSH GRAMMAR II. Negations. The negative adverb ( = not) is — !34 I. In negative statements, nid before vowels, ni before con sonants. See Syntax, §§ 590, 593-596. 2. In answers * to questions and in prohibitions, nac before vowels, na before consonants. 3. With the Subjunctive nad before With the Indicative in indirect statements I vowels, na be- In temporal, causal, consecutive, concessive, | fore conson- final, and hypothetical clauses I ants. Obs.— Before c, g, t, d, in i and 3, nis and nas are often used.f 4. To negative a verb-noun, the verb-noun peidio, ceasing, is employed, with or without the preposition a, ag: e.g. gwell peidio a rhuthro 1 - . jr . . . Veil peidio rhuthro j 'i 'S Mier not /<, rusA. For the use of the negatives, see also Syntax, §§ 590-597. III. Negative Questions. og In Negative Questions, oni, onid, onis are used as interrogative particles. Where some word other than the verb begins the question onid alone is used. e,g. Oni fa efe yno? Onid y djrn oedd yno? JVas he not there f IVas it not the man that was there f 86 87 Answers. * Yes * and * No ' are expressed as follows: — 1. In answers to questions introduced by ai, by le, yes; n&ge, no. 2. „ „ „ „ „ a, the form of answer depends upon the tense of the verb: — (ja) If .the verb of the question (auxiliary or other) be in the Aorist, yes is expressed by d5; no by naddo. (d) In all other cases the verb of the question (auxiliary or other), with the required change of person, must be repeated in the answer: e. A well di y ty? Gwelaf; do you see the house f I do; yes. A ydwyt ti yn gweithio? Nac ydwyf. Are you working f I am not no, N.B. — The negative in these answers is nac before vowels, na before consonants. * Chiefly before forms of wyf, such as wyf, ydwyf, oes, oedd, ydoedd. t The * s ' of nis and nas is an old postvocalic pers. pron. S. and P. 3.
(delwedd F7254) (tudalen 071)	ACCIDENCE 71 288 289 290 291 PREPOSITIONS. I. The simple prepositions in Welsh fall into two main classes: — [a) those to which pronominal suffixes can be added: e.g, dros, over; dros-o-f, over vie. (d) those to which pronominal suffixes cannot be added Class B without pronominal suffixes. cyn, before (of time) er, since ger, by near gerfydd, by heibio, past is, below mewn, in myn, by (in asseverations) uwch, above Note. — Is and uwch are the comparative forms of the adjectives isel and uchel; mewn is an old noun meaning middle while heibio is an adverb used as a preposition. Class A, with pronominal suffixes. am, about ar, on at, towards er, for the sake (of) gan, witA, by heb, without hyd, as far as i, to, into 6,* out of from rhag, before from before rhwng, between tan, dan, under tros, dros, over trwy, drwy, through wrth, tOy close by yn, in 2. In addition to the simple prepositions, Welsh has several compound prepositions consisting of two or more prepositions combined together: e.g, am- dan; o-ddi-ar; o-ddi-am-dan. 3. There are also several prepositional expressions, consisting of prepositions in construction with nouns: e.g, ger Haw, near*, lit by the hand (of) —: o achos, on account (of) r lit. from the cause (of), 4. In some cases the nouns forming part of these prepositional expressions are no longer used separately: eg. plegid [Latin, * placitum '] in o blegid, because (of); pyn (the old Dative form of pen) in er-byn, against. Caution. — The component words of such expressions should be parsed separately. * o in combination with suffixes takes the form ohon-. ,, ,, „ other prepositions takes the form oddi-=o+di, compounded of o and an old prep. 6\tfro/n.
(delwedd F7255) (tudalen 072)	72 WELSH GRAMMAR 292 Combination of Prepositions with Pronominal Suffixes. 1. In the Celtic, as in the Semitic languages, pronominal suffixes are added to prepositions: e.g. wrth, by; wrthyf, by me, 2. These pronominal suffixes in Welsh hear a marked resemblance to those used in the conjugation of the verb. 3. The connecting vowels or diphthongs in each case should be carefully noted, and compared with those of the verb. 4. The suffixes for S. i are, -%f, -of, -yf: e.g, at-af, to me; heb-b without me; wrth-yt by me. I. at-af, to me. 2. heb-of, without me. S. I. at-a-f P. I. at-o-m S. I. heb-o-f P, I. heb-o-m 3. at-a-t 2. at-o-ch 2. heb-o-t- 2. heb-o-ch 3. (m.) at-o 3. at-y-nt 3. (m.) heb-dd-o 3. heb-dd-y-nt 3. (f.) at-i 3. (f.) heb-dd-i 3. wrth-3rf, by me. S. I. wrth-y-f 2. wrth-y-t 3. (m.) wrth-o 3. (f.) wrth-i P. I. wrth-y-m 2. wrth-y-ch 3. wrth-y-nt 294 295 {a) Like at-af we have dan-af, ar-n-af (fr. ar, on, with n inserted). {b) Like heb-of we have rhag-of, rhyng-of, er-of, yn-of, tros-of, trw-of, o-hon-of, (hyd-of). () Like wrth-yf we have genn-yf. Remarks. 1. For rhyng-of, yn-of, tros-of, we have also rhyng-wyf, yn-wyf, tros-wyf. 2. tros-of makes S. 3 (m.) tros-t-o, (f.) tros-t-i, P. 3, tros-t-ynt. 3. trw-of makes trw-of, trw-ot, trwy-dd-o, trwy-dd-i, trw-om, trw-och, trwy-dd-ynt. 4. genn-yf makes genn-yf, genn-yt, gan-dd-o, gan-dd-i, genn-ym, genn-ych, gan-dd-ynt. For S. 3, are sometimes found gan-th-o, gen-th-i, for P. 3, gan-th-ynt.
(delwedd F7256) (tudalen 073)	ACCIDENCE 73 296 5- > '''» niakes S. 3 (m.) i-dd-o, (f.) i-dd-i, P. 3, i-dd-ynt. For the other forms, in place of the sofixes proper, the personal pronouns, mi, ti, ni, chwi are used for S. and P. i and 2 respectively, either separately or as enclitics: e.g, imi, iti, ini, ichwL Obs. — The final i of these combinations is often elided, and we have the forms im, it, in, iwch: e,g, nos davvch, (7«/Jg7/=nos da iwch, good night to you. Nouns used as Prepositions. 297 Achos, cause used as a preposition, meaning on account (of) \ serch, affection used as a preposition, meaning in spite (of), are employed in construction with verb-nouns: eg, achos iddo fyned, on account of his goings because Ju went, serch „ „ in spite of his goings though he went. These nouns are probably old ablatives. Prepositional Expressions. 298 ' " following is a list of common prepositional expressions, the second part of which is a noun. am ben, over blegid, on account (of) ar ben, upon herwydd „ „ ar gyfer, over against gylch, around ar hyd, along amgylch, around ar draws, across ddeutu about ar 51, after gwmpas, around ar warthaf, down upon ran,r the matter (of) er mwyn, for the sake (of)* uwch ben, above er gwaethaf, tn sptte (of) uwch law „ ger bron, in front (of) wrth law, near ger Haw, near yn erbyn, against heb law, besides yng ngVvycjd, in the presence (of) is law, beneath yng nghylch, about i bllth, into the midst (of) ym mhen, at the end (of) i fysg „ „ ym mhllth, among flaen, before ym mysg, among fewn, within yn 61, cter achos, on account (of) * Note that ' of Mn this and similar cases has nothing to correspond to it in the Welsh prepositional expression, but is implied in the genitive relation of the noun following the expression to the noun contained in the expression.
(delwedd F7257) (tudalen 074)	74 WELSH GRAMMAR 2. The noun which followed one of these prepositional expres« sions was originally put in the genitive. 3. Such phrases as ''on account of me, thee, etc are expressed as follows: o'm plegid, o'th blegid, etc., where 'm, 'th, are the post-vocalic possessive adjectives. 4. Similarly, ger dy fron, in front of thee; ar ei ol, after him. 5. With ger Haw, heb law, is law, uwch law, wrth law, the construction with possessive adjectives is not employed, but in its place the preposition i, in one of its pronominal combinations, is . used: e,g, ger Haw imi or im', near me, \ is law iddi, beneath her, ' Caution. — The component words of these prepositional expressions should be parsed separately. For the meanings of prepositions, see Syntax, §§ 388-452. Prepositions governing Verb-Nouns. j 299 For the various expressions formed by means of prepositions i governing verb-nouns, see Syntax (Part II. of this, Grammar), §§! 346a, 346b, 546-556. Conjunctions. 300 Conjunctions belong not to Accidence but to Syntax, and will be found in Part II. of this Grammar (§§ 314, 346,* etc.).
(delwedd F7258) (tudalen 075)	75APPENDIX. I. ON SOUNDS. Quantity. 1. Simple vowels and the first vowels of diphthongs in Welsh may be either long or short. 2. A diphthong is counted long when its first vowel is long. 3. The second vowel of a true diphthong is always short. 4. A simple vowel or the first vowel of a diphthong in Welsh is never long except — (i.) in a monosyllable. (ii.) in the accented final syllable of a polysyllabic word. (iii.) in an accented syllable, whose vowel is immediately followed by a vowel or h. (iv.) in certain prefixes such as di- and tra- when they have a strong secondary accent. Quantity of simple yowels in monosyllables and accented final syllables. I. The vowels of monosyllables ending in more than one consonant are short: e,g. plant, pant, porth, parth, wrth, cant: Except in North Wales, in the case of words ending in st, sb (sp), sg, lit: e,g, clust, gwisg, cosb, mellt. 3. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiceless mutes p, t, c; in the nasals m, ng; and in the voiceless lingual 11 are short: Except — ym, we are \ bom, we may be; bot, thou mayest be; oil and holl; and, in South Wales, most monosyllables ending in 11. 3. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiced mutes b, d, g; in the voiceless spirants, ff, th, ch; in the voiced spirants f, dd, and in the sibilant s are long. N.B. — In North Wales, prepositions and conjunctions of this form are generally short: e.g, heb, ag. 4. If a monosyllable end in a vowel, the vowel is long. NoTB. — The only exceptions are a few unemphatic proclitics, a, y, fy, dy, etc., in connected speech. When emphasized these are pronounced l6ng. 5. If a monosyllable end in 1, n, or r, its vowel may be long or short; in words of this type, if the vowel be i or u, it is long, except in prin and pin; if the vowel be a, e, o, w, y, there is no rule for determining its quantity. 76
(delwedd F7259) (tudalen 076)	76 WELSH GRAMMAR quantity of the first vowels of diphthongs in monosyllables and accented final syllables. £. In monosyllables and accented final syllables, the first vowels of the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ey, aw, ew, iw, ow, uw, y w, are short: e.g. sain, ein, troi, crynhoi, haul, gweu, dweyd, clawdd, mewn, rhiw, trown, duw, llyw. N.B. — In North Wales, a and e in aw and ew, when not followed by a consonant, are pronounced long: e.g, rhiw, t6w; also the diphthongs 2i, oi (ie, oe), in the forms gwnai, tr5i (=tr6ai), also written trOe, gwnSe, and pronounced trou and gwniu in North Wales. 2. In similar cases a, o, w in the diphthongs ae, oe, wy are long. I The * Epenthetic' VoweL* 1. Where a word which is monosyllabic or accented on the last syllable ends in a consonant + 1, n, or r (or in some words in m borrowed from English), the final consonant tends to form a separate syllable. i 2. Since Welsh, in contradistinction to English, requires in the final syllable a distinct vowel, the final syllable formed by 1, n, or r receives a distinct vowel-sound, through the repetition of the vowel of the preceding syllable: e.g. budr becomes budur: pobl, pobol. 3. If the accented syllable preceding the consonantal combinations in question contain a diphthong, the second vowel of the diphthong (in its written form) is repeated as an epenthetic vowel: eg. brwydr becomes brwydyr; hoedl becomes hoedeL N.B. — In North but not in South Wales, words ending in fl, • -fn. and fr remain monosyllabic. • . • Initial Mutation of Consonants. Initial mutations, in point of usage, are of three types — j A. The change of p, t, c into b, d, g; of b, d, g into f, dd, —; of 11, rh into 1, r; of m into f. (The ' soft ' mutation.) - B. The change of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. (The 'aspirate' mutation.) C. The change of p, t, c into mh, nh, ngh; of b, d, g into m, n, ng. (The ' nasal * mutation.) • This vowel is also known by its Sanskrit name * swarabliakti ' vowel.
(delwedd F7260) (tudalen 077)	ACCIDENCE 77 Type A. (The 'soft' mutation.) This is the most common type of initial mutation in Welsh, and occurs — 1. In a word following a parenthesis: e.g, gwelwyd (yn y lle) rai dynion; wedi (i mi) fyned, 2. In address: .. gyfeiilion hofF, dear friends, 3. In- the second element of word-groups of the following forms: — (a) X + noun. f) noun + X. \c) X + verb. ji) verb + X. ' " \e) X + adjective. (a) X + noun. In this case x may be: — (i) a proper name, when followed by an agnomen: e.g, Dafydd f renin, David the king, /i4..,-».irv (2) the common nouns, eglwys, teml, ty, teymais, before Duw; ty and eglwys before Mair and Dewi; llan before names of saints. (3) an adjective in the positive or the superlative degree; together with ambell, ami, rhyw, and its compounds amryw, cyfryw, unrhyw; dy, 'th, ei (masc.); pa; yr hwn; dau; dwy; y fath and pa fath; and — before nouns fern, sing, only — un and the ordinal numbers. 4) the definite article y, before nouns fern, sing, only, (5) the word yn, used to introduce a predicate-noun. (6) one of the prepositions am, ar, at, gan, heb, hyd, i, tan (dan), tros (dros), trwy (drwy), 6, wrth. (7)* one of the adverbs dyma,* dyna, dacw, (8) an interjection. . . {b) noim H- X. In this ce x may be — (i) an adjective (or a noun used as an adjective) after a noun / fern, sing, only: ' ' / e,g. dynes ddu, allt goed. (2) a personal pronoun: / e.g, dy lyfr di. * dyma, dyna, dacw, stand for wel di yma, see thou here; wel di yita, ste thou there; wel di acw, su thou yonder; respectively. ■ / /
(delwedd F7261) (tudalen 078)	78 WELSH GRAMMAR (3) an adverb, modifying an adjective which qualifies a noun fem. sing.: ,.,..,9J e,g, y ddynes dra hardd. {c) X + verb. In this case x may be — (i) the interrogative particle a: e.g. A ddaw? will he comet (2) the pre- verbal particle a: e.g ddydd a ddaw, a day thai will come, (3) personal pronoun (where a is omitted). e,g. ti redodd oreu. (4) a noun (where a is omitted): e.g, John gafodd y wobr. (5) an adjective used as an adverb: e.g. syn fyfyriai. (6) the adverbs ni, na (not), oni, only before verbs beginning with b d gi lly rh m: e.g, ni ddaw, he will not come, (7) the conjunction pan, when: e.g, pan ddaw, when he comes, (d) verb + x. In this case x may be — (i) a personal pronoun: e.g, gwelodd fi, he saw me, (2) a noun or verb-noun as object: e,g, ceisiodd droi, he tried to turn, (3) a noun or verb-noun as subject, only after oes S, 3. Pres, Indie, of bod: e.g, nid oes ddyn, there is not a man, 4) a predicate-noun or predicate-adjective after forms of yf. I5) words denoting duration, point of time, distance and measure: e,g, aeth fllltir, he went a mile, (e) X + adjective. In this case x may be — (i) a noun fem. sing.: e.g, dynes dda, a good woman. (2) the definite article before an culjective qualifying a noun fem. >> sing.', e.g. y fwynaf ferch, the gentlest maiden. ' (3) oe of the adverbs go, rhy, ajad (except as a general rule usually before 11 and rh) pur, cyn, mor: e.g, go lawn, rather full. :t \ (4) the word yn, introducing a predicate-adjective or an adjjective used as an adverb: e.g, yn dda, well, ) "OTE I. — After eithr, oni, onid, oddieithr, oddigerth, namyn and heblaw, bo< and darfod often undergo mutation of type A. KOTE 2. —After ni and na mutation in the case of forms of wyf is optionaL Note 3. — The word yn used to introduce predicate nouns and adjectives, and adjectives used as adverbs is possibly a remnant of the old Brythonic article. \
(delwedd F7262) (tudalen 079)	ACCIDENCE 79 Type B. (The ' aspirate ' mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows: — (i) after the conjunctions a, and; na, nor, than; o, if. (2) ,, prepositions a, gyda, tua, efo, with, (3) ,, possessive adjective ei (fem.). (4) ,, cardinal numbers tri and chwe. (5) ,, adverb tra. TjTpe C. (The ' nasal ' mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows: — (i) after the possessive adjective fy, my (older fyn). (2) „ preposition yn, in (except in the case of the verb-noun). (3) after the cardinal numbers, saith, wyth, nSw, deng, deuddeng, ugain, can, when followed by diwrnod, blynedd, bldd. II. ON SPELLING. Some difference of opinion still exists with regard to Welsh spelling, especially in the matter of doubling consonants. It is impossible to formulate entirely satisfactory rules on this subject, because the practice even of good writers varies very considerably. The Orthographical Committee of the Welsh Language Society in its Report (Welsh National Press Co., Carnarvon, 1893) recommends doubling only in the case of n and r in accented syllables, and then only in cases where the n or r closes the accented syllable. As it is not always easy to determine the correct division into syllables, the student will do well to avoid doubling these consonants except where it is the universal practice of good -writers to double them. Obs. — When an ending is added to a word terminating in n or r whose vowel is short, the' n or r is often doubled. N.B. — In Welsh a consonant following an accented vowel is not pronounced with so much force as a consonant in a corresponding position in English. * 82

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(delwedd F7262b) (tudalen 080a)	parallel Grammar Series A WELSH GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS BASED 01V THE PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY BY E. ANWYL, M.A. OxoN. Professor of Welsh at Me University College of Wales, Aberystwyth Late Classical Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford PART 11 SYNTAX LONDON: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. LTD NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO 1907
(delwedd F7262c) (tudalen 080b)	First Edition, April, 1899. Second Edition, August, igo7.
(delwedd F7262d) (tudalen 080c)	PREFACE THE need has long been felt for a Welsh Syntax which would exhibit, in a lucid and systematic manner, the characteristic features of the language, without doing violence to its history on the one hand, or, on the other, ignoring the present state of its development. With this in view, the Author of this work has endeavoured throughout to distinguish clearly between the probable constructions of the parent Celtic speech and the actual constructions of modern Welsh, as shown, for example, in the difference between the extinct and the living uses of such words as mai,Pe, and the pre-verbal particles a and yr O), In Welsh philology a clearer distinction between the probable origin of forms and their present uses is urgently needed. To obscure divergences between earlier and later meanings of forms, in the case of any language, is to lose sight of the principles which have governed its whole history. The Author wishes to express his best thanks to the General Editor of this series, Prof. Sonnenschein, for invaluable assistance in the preparation of this book; to those previous Welsh grammarians, without whose diligent and faithful care in pre serving the tradition of the literary language this work would not have been possible; to Principal Rhys and Professors Powel and John Morris Jones, whose conversations with the Author on these matters have always afforded him many valuable suggestions, which he has carefully treasured in his memory; to Dr. J, A. H, Murray, of Oxford, whose clear exposition of some of the principles of language has been a help in many diffculties; and to his brother, the Rev. J. Bodvan Anwyl, for valuable help in the preparation of the Index. •ABERYSTWYTH, 1899, E. ANWYL,
(delwedd F7262e) (tudalen 080d)	CONTENTS OF SYNTAX INTRODUCTION SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION Subject . . Predicate . . . . Predicate Adjective or Noun . Object . . . Two Objects Predicate Adjective or Noun referring to the Object Attributes . Kinds of Sentence COMPLEX SENTENCE Adverb Clauses and Phrases . 4, Adjective 4 Clauses . Noun Clauses and Phrases Reported Speech .. 6 MEANINGS OF FORMS: Dependent Noun Prepositions . Voices . . . Tenses Tenses of the Indicative Moods Subjunctive Imperative . . Verbnoun and Verb-adjectives Pronouns, etc. . . . . Article . . . Adverbs . . " . * ea . 6 Words Representing Sentences, APPENDIX INDEX vi
(delwedd F7262f (tudalen 080e)	INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX. Syntax is the part of grammar which treats of the construction of sentences. For the classification of sentences see §§ 339-345
(delwedd F7265) (tudalen 082)	82WELSH SYNTAX 301 302 303 304 ANAL YSIS OF SENTENCES. Subject and Predicate. The sentence usually consists of two main parts, the Subject and the Predicate. The Subject is the word or group of words denoting that about which something is said in the Predicate; the Predicate is what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject, and it includes not only the Verb, but also any Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun or Object or Adjunct (or combination of these) with which it may be joined. Such additions to the Verb will be spoken of as the Remainder of the Predicate. Note that in all cases the Predicate includes the whole of what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject These two parts of the sentence may be contained in a single word: e.g, canant, they sing. The Normal Order of the Welsh sentence is Verb— Subject — Remainder of Predicate. The Predicate may assume any of the following five forms:— FORMS OF THE PREDICATE. I II III IV V VERB. SUBJECT. REMAINDER OF PREDICATE. • 1 ' can y dyn t. ■ mae y dyn Predicate Noun or Adjective. yn* frenin or yn* dda Object y bachgen gwelodd t y dyn rhoddodd f y dyn Two Objects, -lyfr i'r bachgen. ' galwodd t 1 y dyn Object, ef Fred. Noun or Adjective, yn* frenin or yn* dda • The word * yn * which usually precedes the Predicate-noun or Predicate-adjective is probably a remnant of one of the forms of the Brythonic definite article. A Predicate-noMn or adjective is a noun or adjective predicated of the Subject or the Object. t Verbs which generally take an Object are called transitive. Verbs which generally take no Object are called intransitive.
(delwedd F7266) (tudalen 083)	ANAL YSIS OF SENTENCES 83 Inverted Order. (See Appendix.) 305 The normal order of the sentence is frequently changed for the sake of emphasis, the emphatic word or group of words being put at the beginning of the sentence. — Thus the Subject or the Object or the Predicate-adjective or the Predicate-noun or the Adjunct may be put before the Verb. In such cases the word a or yr (y) is put immediately before the verb as shewn in the following examples.* (Cf. Accidence, § 194, 2nd ed.) With Predicate of Form I: — y dyn a gan, * the"//i«« sings'; *it is the man who sings.' y dyn sydd yma, * the man is here '; * it is the man who is here.' With Predicate of Form II:— brenin yw y dyn, *the man is a king ] * it is a king that the man is.' da yw y dyn, 'the man is good*: *it is good that the maii is.' Similarly with a Predicate-pronoun: myfi y w, * it is I *; pwy yw? ' who is it? * With Predicate of Form III: y bachgen a welodd y dyn,t 'the man saw the boy ', *it was the boy that the man saw.' With Predicate of Form IV: — {a) llyfr a roddodd y dyn iV bachgen, * the man gave the boy a book* 'y * it was a book that the man gave the boy.' (b) i'r bachgen y rhoddodd y dyn lyfr, * the man gave the bey a book '; ' it was to the boy that the man gave a book.' With Predicate of Form V: — (a) ef a alwodd y dyn yn frenin, * the man called him king '; * it was he whom the man called king.' (b) yn frenin y galwodd y dyn ef, 'the man called him king* -, *it was a king that the man called him.' Similarly where an Adjunct is emphasised: e,g, yno yr aeth, * he went there '; * it was there that he went' * When the Subject or the Object is put first, a is employed, in other cases yr or y; yr before vowels and h; y before consonants. The forms from wyf eta, oeddwn etc. and sydd, do not take a. t Observe the possible ambiguity between Subject and Object in sentences of this type.
(delwedd F7267) (tudalen 084)	84 WELSH SYNTAX Attributes. 306 Any noun (whether standing in the Subject or in the Predicate) may be qnalified by an adjective (or adjective-equivalen § 310); e.g. gwr doeth, a wise man; cyfeillion hoff, dear friends. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is called an Attribute. Adjuncts. 307 Any verb, adjective or adverb in the sentence may be qualified by an adverb (or adverb-equivalent, § 311):. e.g, ymladdodd y dyn yn ddewr, t/ie man fought bravely. mae yn weithiwr tra diwyd, he is an exceedingly diligent workman, cerddodd yn bur gyflym, he walked rather rapidly. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is called an Adjunct. Equivalents. 308 The noun, the adjective and the adverb may be replaced by other parts of speech doing the same work in the sentence, or by a group of words doing the work of a single part of speech. A word or group of words which replaces a noun, an adjective or an adverb is called an Equivalent (Noun-equivalent, Adjective-equivalent or Adverb-equivalent). A group of words . forming an Equivalent and not having a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a Phrase. A group of words forming an Equivalent and having a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a Subordinate Clause (cf. § 312). For a list of noun-, adjective-, and adverb-equivalents see §§ 309-311.. Noun-, Adjective-, and Adverb-Equivalents. NOUN-EQUIVALENTS. 309 A noun-equivalent may be — {a) A pronoun: e,g. buost ti yno, thou hast been there, \b) An adjective, with or without the article: e.g. cyfoethogion, rich men; y cyfoethogion, the rich; y gwir, the true.
(delwedd F7268) (tudalen 085)	ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 85 {c) A verb-noun *: e.g. hyfryd ydyw gweithio, it is pleasant to work (lit. working is pleasant); ceisiaf weled, I shall try to see: (d) A phrase consisting of a verb-noun and words connected therewith: e.g, dywedodd foi dynion yno, he said that there were men there (lit. the being of men there). {e) A verb-adjective preceded by the article: e.g. yr anfonedig, the person sent, {/) A clause in a complex sentence: e.g. dywedodd nad oedd dynion yno, he said that there were no men there, (g) A word or group of words quoted: e.g. heb * os ' nac * onibae/ without ifor*' were it not* ADJECTIVE-EQUIVALENTS. 310 An adjective-equivalent may be — (a) A verb-adjective: e.g, gwelliant addawedig, a promised improvement, ip) A noun depending on another noun, corresponding to the genitive of Greek and Latin: e.g, llais dyn, the voice of a man, (c) A noun or verb-noun used as an adjective: e.g, wal gerrig, a stone wall; carreg ateb, an echo, (lit. an answering stone; i.e. a stone for ansraering,) (d) A noun in apposition: e.g. ni ddynion, we men, (e) A noun governed by a preposition: e,g, llain frethyn, a piece of cloth, (/) An adverb: e,g, y dynion gynt, the men of old, ig) A clause in a complex sentence: e.g. pell yw y lle y bum jndOjfar is the place where I have been, ADVERB-EQUIVALENTS. 311 An adverb-equivalent may be — (a) A noun corresponding to an oblique case of Greek and Latin: e,g, arhosaf dridian, / xa// stay three /aj; cerddasapt fiUdir, they walked a mile, (b) A noun governed by a preposition: e.g. 5f at y ty, J shall go towards the house; trwy drais, by force; gyda tbrafferUi, with difficulty, • The verb-noun, though in many respects treated as a noun in Welsh, yet, in some important respects, takes the construction of a verb: e,g. dan alw y dyn yn ffol, calling the inanfoolish like geilw y dyn yn ffol, he calls the man foolish.
(delwedd F7269) (tudalen 086)	86 WELSH SYNTAX (f) A phrase formed by means of a verb-noun governed by prepositions: e.. cyn dyfod, before coming; er dyfod, in spite of coming, (d) A clause in a complex sentence: e,g, synnodd paji welodd, he marvelled when he saw. The Simple and the Complex Sentence. 312 I. aeth iV dy, he went into his house. 2. aeth i'w dy, pan orphenodd, he went into his hottse when he had finished, A sentence like (i), which contains only one group of words having a Subject and a Predicate, is called Simple [Lat. simplex = onefold], A sentence like (2), which contains — {a) a Principal group, having a Subject and a Predicate of its own, (b) a Subordinate group, having a Subject and a Predicate of its own, is called Complex, and each of the groups is called a Clause (cf. §§ 308, 313). Principal Clause. Aeth i'w dy. Kinds of Subordinate Clause. 313 Subordinate Clauses may be classified according to the part of speech to which they are akin: — 1. Noun Clauses: i,e. Clauses playing the part of a noun. 2. Adjective Clauses: i.e. Clauses playing the part of an adjective. - 3. Adverb Clauses: i,e. Clauses playing the part of an adverb. Obs. — It should be borne in mind, in studying Welsh Syntax, that:— (i) Some sentences now treated as simple sentences of , * Inverted Order,' were probably in origin complex sentences. See Appendix. (2) Some sentences which express the meaning of a complex* sentence are simple in form: e.g, dywedodd ei fod yn glaf, he said that he was illy lit. he said his being ill. On the other hand, dywedodd nad oedd yn glaf, he said that he was not ill is a complex sentence. Subordinate Clause. pan orphenodd. | ANALYSIS Of SENTENCES 87 Co-ordinating Conjunctions. 314 I. Two or moFe sentences, clauses, phrases or single words linked together by one of the following conjunctions are called Co ordinate, and the conjunctions which link them together are called Co-ordinating conjunctions: — a, ac, and nac, na, nor ond, eithr, but canys, neu, J oherwydd, \ for ai, \or oblegid J ynte, ) Obs. — The forms ac and nac are generally used before words beginning with a vowel and frequently before adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions beginning with f, h, m or n.
(delwedd F7270) (tudalen 087)	87 2. It sometimes happens that the first member of a group linked together by one of the above conjunctions may be introduced by a word which serves to bring out more clearly its relation to what follows. Thus we get the following pairs: — naill ai ynte or neu, eiifur or nac nac neither nor Subordinating Conjunctions. 315 i. All conjunctions other than those given above are Subordinating conjunctions, introducing either Noun Clauses or Adverb Clauses. 2. In almost all affirmatiye subordinate clauses of normal order, the verb is preceded by the proclitic particle yr (before vowels and h), y (before consonants). 3. In many Adverb Clauses, the subordinating conjunction is identical with some preposition. 4. In affirmative subordinate clauses of inverted order, the emphatic word of the clause is preceded by the conjunction mai. (For the probable explanation see Appendix.) 5. In negative subordinate clauses, nad (na) is substituted for yr (y), nad for mai of the corresponding affirmative clause. Examples: — dy wedais yr awn yno, * I said I should go there.' (AflT.) „ nad „ „ * I said I should not go there.' (Neg.) „ mai yno yr awn * I said I should go ihere, (Aff.) „ nad „ „ „ * I said I should not go there (Neg.)
(delwedd F7271) (tudalen 088)	88 WELSH SYNTAX gan y byddwch yno, galwch, * as you will be there, call.' (Aff.) „ na fyddwch „ peidiwch, ' as you will not be there, [do not.' (Neg.) „ xnai yno y byddwch, galwch, * as it is there you will be, [call.' (Aff.) „ nad „ „ „ peidiwch, * as it is not there you [will be, do not.' (Neg.) 6. A word like felly, so, is a sentence-adverb, tc, an adverb affecting the sentence as a whole. Obs. — Sometimes a clause introduced by a relative may be used in Welsh as equivalent to a co-ordinate sentence: e.g. ym mhen peth amser daeth rhyw lane yno, yr hwn, wedi cryn drafferth, a'u hachubodd, after some time a youth came ihere who after some trouble resetted them. The two parts of Syntax. Syntax has to answer two questions: 1. How are meanings expressed in sentences and parts of sentences 1 The answer is given in §§316-371, which deal with Sentence Construction. 2. What are the various meanings of the inflected forms of words? The answer is given in §§ 372 foil., which deal with the Meanings of Forms. N.B. — In dealing with Sentence Construction, those constructions which are peculiar to the Complex Sentence will be treated affer those which are common to the Simple and the Complex Sentence.
(delwedd F7272) (tudalen 089)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 89 SYNTAX. PART I. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. THE SUBJECT. 316 I. In a sentence of normal order in Modern Welsh, the Subject follows the Verb, so that it may be looked upon as the word which indicates the source of the action denoted by the Verb, the Verb in a sentence of normal order occupying the more prominent position. 2. The Predicate could, therefore, be very naturally discussed first, but as it assumes various forms, it is convenient first to discuss the Subject. 3. In Welsh, as in other languages, the Subject is either a noun or a noun-equivalent. 4. Subject not expressed by a separate word. As in Greek and Latin and some other languages, the Subject is not expressed by a separate word when it is sufficiently indicated by the verb-ending: e, gwelais, / saw, ymddengys, // appears. chwiliodd, he searched, aethom, we went, Obs. I. — If the Verb is preceded by a post-vocalic accus. pronoun (see Accidence, § 130), the Subject, if a pronoun, is practically never expressed in Welsh: e,g, yno y*m gwelsant, it was there that they saw me; not— yno y*m gwelsant hwy. Obs. 2. — On the other hand, in a negative sentence, the pbst -vocalic pers. pron. S. '3 cannot be used after nl, so that ef (following the verb) must be employed instead: e.g. ni cheir ef, he is not found; not, ni'i cheir. 5. Not unfrequently, when the Subject is already sufficiently obvious, or where it would be expressed in English by they ( = people" in general), one ( = French on, German man\ things or // ( = the situation in general, French /7, German es\ or where
(delwedd F7273) (tudalen 090)	90 . WELSH SYNTAX the intrinsic interest of the action lies in itself, Welsh employs the impersonal forms of the verb: e.s;. cychwynir, a start will be made: eir yno yfory, some on: will go there to-morrow. This impersonal use was probably the only original use of the impersonal forms of Welsh. (See Accidence, § 178.) Cf. Latin Grammar, P.G.S. § 316*. 6. Verbs denoting phases of the weather. — In the case of verbs denoting phases of the weather, the impersonal forms are not employed in Welsh. Such verbs take the personal form wiih the simple personal pronoun hi (S. 3. Feminine), as Subject. The Subject is not unfrequently omitted: mae hi yn gwlawio, // rains ) fe t wlawiodd ddoe, // rained yesterday, NOTE. — The origin of this form of expression is unknown. Possibly it may have been due to a practice among the Celts of attributing such phenomena as rain, thumler, etc., to a gmUIess. THE PREDICATE. Agreement of the Verb with the Subject in Simple Sentences. WHEN THE SUBJECT IS SIMPLE. 317 Here it is necessary to consider whether the sentence be of normal or inverted order. 3181 I- sentences of normal order (see § 303). • aeth y wraig i*r ty, the woman has gone into the house, . aeth y gwragedd i'r ty, the women have gone into the house, gweithiodd y dynion yn rhagorol, the men worked excellently. aethom ni gartref, w tt'«/ //itf. maenthwy yno, they are there, a gawsant hwy ddigon? did they get enough? Rule. — In sentences of normal order, when the Subject is a noun, the Verb is always in the singular, whether the noun be singular or plural. When the Subject is a pionoun, the Verb agrees with the pronoun in number and person. t For Te* see Accidence, % 133 and Appendix.
(delwedd F7274) (tudalen 091)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 91 329 2. In sentences of inverted order (see § 305). y pendefigion o'r Aipht draw j a ddavv ac Etliiopia (E. Prys), the noblemen will come from distant Egypt and Ethiopia, y merched (a) gaiff * fyned gyntaf, the women shall go first, ai chwf (a) roddodd yr arian? was it you that gave the money I hwy (or hwynthwy) ni fuont yno, they were not there. Rule. — In affirmative sentences of inverted order, the Verb stands in the 3rd pers. sing. In negative sentences the Verb agrees with the Subject in number and person; see Appendix. Obs. — Even in affirmative sentences, when the Subject, though placed before the Verb, is not emphatic, the Verb often agrees with it in number and person: e.g, mi a glywais y chwedl, I heard the story, pawb a'i bendithiant ef yn wir, all will verily bless him, (E. Prys.) N.B. — A collective noun from which a singular is formed (§§ 71 77) is treated in Syntax as a plural. 320 WHEN THE SUBJECT IS COMPOUND. A Compound Subject is a Subject made up of two 01 more nouns (or noun-equivalents) linked together by the conjunction ac, afid or united in thought without a conjunction. Here again it is necessary to consider whether the sentence be of normal or inverted order. 321 I. In sentences of normal order (see § 303). daeth John a William, yj7« fl»// /7//a/// m;w, daeth John a minnau, John and I came, daethost ti a minnau, you and I came, daethost ti a John, yo and John came* Rule. — In sentences of normal order, if the Compound Subject be a noun + noun or a noun + pronoun, the Verb is in the 3rd pers. sing.; if the Compound Subject be a pronoun + pronoun or a pronoun + noun, the Verb agrees in person and number with the pronoun nearest to it. The same rule applies to words joined together by neu, or, • Cft the Breton m a gar, / loroe*
(delwedd F7275) (tudalen 092)	92 WELSH SYNTAX 322 2. In sentences of inverted order (see § 305). John a minnau sydd yma, // is John and I that are here, ef a'r bacligen (a) aeth yno, // tvas he and the boy that went there. Rule. — In affirmative sentences of inverted order, the Verb, even when the Subject is Compound, stands in the 3rd pers. sing. Ons. — In negative sentences and sometimes even in affirmative sentences the Verb is made to agree with the Subject: e.g, efa minnau ni aethom, kt and I did not ; hi a thithau a aethoch, she and you went. In that case, if the words composing the Subject are of different persons, then the plural Verb is of the 1st person rather than the 2nd or 3rd, and oJ: the 2nd person rather than the 3rd. Reason.— 6f a minnau » ni (ist pers. plur.). h! a thithau « chwi (2nd pers. plur.). Agreement of the Verbs with the Subject in Co-ordinate Sentences. 323 aeth y brenin i'r llys ac eisteddodd ar ei orsedd, the king went into the court and sat on his throne, eisteddodd y gweithwyr a gorphwysasant, the workmen sat and rested, aethom i'r ty ac eisteddasom, 7ve went into the house and sat doivn. Rule. — In a seiies of co-ordinate sentences 7vith the same Subfecty the Verbs, in all the sentences after the first, agree in number and person with that Subject N.R — Sometimes, in such a series of sentences, only the first sentence has a finite verb, while the others have each a verb-noun: e.g, aethant i*r ty ac eistedd a bwyta, they went into the house, sat doivn and ate, SECOND FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB -h PREDICATE- ADJECTIVE OR PREDICATE-NOUN, § 304, 11.) 324 ' same kind of verb may stand in a Predicate of the Second Form as in English: — I. wyf, / am: e,g, yr wyf yn ddedwydd, / am happy; mSe yn frenin, he is a king, deuaf, /become: e.g, daw y bachgen yn ddyn, the child will become a man.
(delwedd F7276) (tudalen 093)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 93 arhosaf, / remain: e.g. ni erys yn ieuanc, /le will not remain young, ymddanghosaf, / appear: e.g, ymddanghosaf yn drist, / appear sad. 2. The Passives (cf. Accidence, § 178; § 327, note) — creir fi, I am created; penodir ft, / am appointed; etholir fi, / am elected; gelwir fi, / am called; cyfrifir fi, / am accounted; ystyrir fi, / am considered: e.g. penodir y tywysog yn frenin, the prince is appointed king; cyfrifir fi yn dlawd, /am accounted poor. Rule. — The Predicate-noun or the Predicate-adjective is preceded by the predicative proclitic yn (for which see § 304, note). When, however, the Verb is a form of wyf, / am, and the Predicate-noun or Predicate-adjective precedes the Verb, yn is not used: e.g dyn wyf, J am a man, 3. With other verbs the Predicate-adjective or the Predicate-noun referring to the Subject denotes: — either (a) the result of an action: e.g. fe gyfyd yr afon yn uwch, tAe river will rise higher, or () what the Subject is, was or will be at the time of the action: e.g. dychwelodd yn fyw ac iacli, he returned alive and ivelL 4. This use of the Predicate-adjective has been greatly extended in Welsh so as to supply the place of adverbs: e.g. gweithiodd yn egniol, he worked vigorously. Cf. the Latin invitus (imprudens) fecit, he did it unwillingly (unwittingly). Agreement of the Predicate-adjective. 325 maef yr afon yn ddofn, the river is deep, , ymddengys y tai yn wynion, the houses appear white. . mae y dillad yn ddu iawn, the clot/ies are very black. Rule. — As in Latin and Greek, the Predicate-adjective, if capable of undergoing change of form to express gender or number, generally agrees with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, but sometimes the Predicate-adjective, though capable of taking a plural form, is left in the singular, even when the noun of which it is predicated is in the plural.
(delwedd F7277) (tudalen 094)	94 WELSH SYNTAX Obs. I. — When the Subject is plural and the Predicate-adjective singular, the masculine form of the singular is always used: e., mae y dolydd yn wyrdd, ihe nucui<nos are green, (not — yn werdd, though dol is t'eininine.) Obs. 2. —When the Predicate-adjective is equivalent in meaning to an English adverb ending in -ly it always has the form o( the singular masculine. 326 327 THIRD FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB + OBJECT, § 30 |, IIL) The Object. 1. In Welsh, as in other languages, {a) the Object is either a noun or a noun-equivalect; () if the Object be a declinable word, it stands in the accusative case: e,g, fe* m gwelodd, he saiv me, N.B. — The only words of accusative /7rw in Modern Welsh are the postvocalic personal pronouns. See Accidence, §§ 130', 132. 2. The Object of a verb is often of kindred meaning to the verb. In this case it is called Cognate. As in Latin and Greek, a Cognate Object is usually qualified by an adjective: e.g, canodd gan ragorol, he sang an excellent song. Passive Construction. -f ACTIVE. lladdodd y teithiwr lew, the traveller killed a lion. dychr)'nodd y tarw y bechgyn, the bull frightened the boys. PASSIVE. • lladdwyd Hew gan y teithiwr, a lion was killed by the traveller, dychrj'nwyd y bechgyn gan y tarw, the boys were frightened by the bull. Rule. — In the Passive construction of verbs taking an Object, what \yas the Object in the Active becomes the Subject; what was the Subject in the Active is connected with the Passive verb by the preposition gan, by (lit. with). Note.— Owing to the peculiar history of the Welsh Passive (see Accidence, § 178), it is often difficult to determine, when the sentence is of normal order, whether the apparent Subject is a Subject of a passive verb or the Object of an impersonal verb; when the sentence is of inverted order and the Subject precedes the verb, the passive character of the verb is much clearer: e.g. gwelwyd dyn (Normal order) ' a man was seen ' (unemphatic) dyn a welwyd (Inverted order) * a ffian was seen ' (emphatic).
(delwedd F7278) (tudalen 095)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 95 Verbs constructed with a fixed preposition. 328 Where a language like Greek, Latin, or German, in other words an inflexional language, uses fixed cases in dependence upon certain verbs, in Welsh, as in English, a fixed preposition often becomes necessary. 329 The chief verbs taking such fixed prepositions are the following: — (a) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ag (a), with. cydymdeimlaf [ag] I sympathize {witK\ cynefinaf [ag] I grtnv accustomed \l6\ cytunaf [ag] Iagree\wWi\ ymddiddanaf [ag] / converse [wM] (d) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ar, on. y m h el iaf [ag] / meddle \7vitH\ ymladdaf [ag] I fight \ivitfi\ ymrysonaf [ag] / quarrel [with] ymyraf [ag] / interfere [with] achwynaf [ar] beiaf [ar] blinaf [ar] boddlonaf [ar] cefnaf [ar] cwynaf [ar] daliaf [ar] dialaf [ar] I complain \pf] I blame I am tired \of\ I am content \witH\ I forsake I complain \of] I pay heed \t6\ I take vengeance [upon] dylanwadaf [ar] I influence (c) Verbs taking the fixed preposition at, towards. edrychaf [ar] galwaf [ar] gwaeddaf [ar] gweddiaf [arj gwenaf [ar] gwyliaf [arJ llefaf [ar] rhagoraf [ar] syhvaf [ar] / lonk [at] I call [upon] I cry [to] I pray [to] I smile \pn\ I watch I cry [to] I excel , I notice ymosodaf [ar] I attack agoshaf [at] cadwaf [at] cyfeiriaf [at] / approach I keep [to] I refer [to] neshaf [at] / approach rhyfeddaf at] I wonder [at] synnaf [at] „ „ .V • {d) Verbs taking the fixed preposition wrth, to, close to. cenfigenaf [wrth] I envy digiaf [wrth] / am angry ' [with] dywedaf [wrth] I tell glynaf [wrth] I cling [to] . llefaraf [wrth] I speak\to] tarawaf [wrth] / meet [with] tosturiaf [wrth] I pity Add also: atebaf [i], / answer; ymroddaf [ij, / devote myself [to]; cyfranogaf [o] / partake [of]; and ymogelaf [rhag], J beiuare [of\
(delwedd F7279) (tudalen 096)	96 WELSH SYNTAX Verbs taking a verb-noun as Object. 330 Some verbs take a verb-noun as their Object: e.g. gallaf weithio / can work. dechreuaf ysgrifenu, / s/ia/l begin to write (lit. / shall begin writing). addawodd ddyfod, he tromised to come (lit he promised coming). dysgwn ddarllen, let us learn to read (!it lei us learn reading). The following verbs may take a verb-noun as Object in a Predicate of the Third Form: — addawaf ' anghofiaf anobeithiaf anturiaf arferaf arswydaf beiddiaf brysiaf bwriadaf bygythiaf caf caraf cashif ceisiaf cofiaf cychwynaf cynygiaf chwenychaf dechreuaf dewisaf digwyddaf disgwyliaf dylwn Caution. — The verb-noan after these verbs must not be preceded by the preposition i. After troaf [i], I turn [to]; Uwyddaf [i], / -succeed [/«]; and cytunaf [i], / agree to the verb-noun is correctly preceded by that preposition. \QS. § 333, Cautions i and 2.] / promise dysgat / learn I forget dymunaf I desire I despair ewyllysiaf I wish I venture gallaf I can I am accustomed gobeithiaf I hope I dread gochelaf I avoid I dare gorphenaf I finish I liasten gwrthodaf J refuse I intend haeddaf I deserve I threaten hoffaf I like I obtain medraf I am able I love methaf I am unable I hate mynnaf I am determined I seek nacif I refuse I refnember oedaf I delay I start ofnaf I fear I attempt osgoaf I avoid J desire osiaf I attempt I begin pallaf I fail I choose rhyfygaf I risk I happen trefnaf ' I arrange I expect ymdrechaf 1 endeavour I ought »
(delwedd F7280) (tudalen 097)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 97 FOURTH FORM OF THE PREDICATE, (predicate =VEKB + TWO OBJECTS, § 304, IV.) 331 Welsh has no verbs which take two accusatives (like Latin doceo te linguam Latinam, / teach i/iee the Latin language)\ and, owing to the absence of dative inflexions, no verbs which take a dative and an accusative. It has, however, a considerable number of verbs which take an Object and a fixed prepsition governing a noun or pronoun (or combined with a pronominal suffix) in place of a second Object: e.g, rhoddaf arian i'r llanc, J shall give the youth money, amddifadodd ef o'i eiddo, he deprived him of his property, talasant ei gyflog iddo, they paid him his salary. 332 (a) Verbs taking the fixed preposition i, to. addawaf [i] atebaf [i] cynygiaf [i] danghosaf [i] dysgaf [il edliwiaf fi] gadawaf [ij / promise I answer I offer I sho7v I teach I taunt I leai'e gofynaf [i] gosodaf [i] maddeuaf [i] mynegaf [i] rhoddaf [i] talaf [i] / ask I assigJt [to] I Jorgixe I indicate \to\ J give \to\ I pay \to\ {b) Verbs taking the fixed preposition o, from. amddifadaf [o] / deprive \of\ argyhoeddaf [o] / convince [of] cyhuddaf [o] / accuse [of] llanwaf [o] //// [with] (c) Verbs taking the fixed preposition wrtb, to, addefaf [wrth] / admit [to] cyffesaf [wrth] / confess [to] cyfaddefaf [wrth] / confess [to] (d) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ag (a), with, cymysgaf [ag] / mix [with] cysylltaf [ag] J join [td\ cynysgaeddaf [ag]/;/(c;zf/ [with] (e) Verbs taking the fixed preposition at, to, toivard. cymhwysaf [at] / apply [to] chwanegaf [at] / add [to] gosodaf [at] / add [to] ysgrifenaf [atj / write [to] (/) Verbs taking the fixed preposition rhag, from. achubaf [rha] / save [f om] cadwaf [rhag] / keep [from] diogelaf [rhag] I protect [from] gwyliaf [rhag] „ c }»
(delwedd F7281) (tudalen 098)	93 WELSH SYNTAX 333 Verbs taking a verb-noun as one of two Objects- Some verbs take a verb-noun as one of two Objects: e,g. dysgodd i mi gann, he taught me singing, gofynais iddo fyned, / asked him to go. gadewch i'r bwyd oeri, allow the food to cool. The following verbs may take a verb-noun as one of their Objects in a Predicate of the Fourth Form:-r- addawaf / promise ewyllysiaf / wish arbedaf I save goddefaf I allow archaf I request gofynaf I ask awgrymaf I suggest gorchymynaf 1 command bwriadaf I intend gwaharddaf I forbid caf ♦ I obtain gwarafunaf M »» ceisiaf * I seek gwnif / make caniataf I alloiv gwrthodaf 1 refuse cynghoraf I advise nacif )t 9> cynygiaf I offer paraf / cause deisyfaf * I beseech rhwystraf I prevent dymunaf * I desire trefnaf I arrange erfyniaf * I beg Cautions. — i. The verb-noun after these verbs must not be preceded by the preposition i (cf. § 330, Caution): t,g, gofynaf iddo ddyfod, / shall ask him to come (not, gofynaf iddo i ddyfod). The unnecessary use of the prep, i before the verb-noun in Predicates of the Fourth Form (in imitation of the English * to * before the infinitive) is one of the commonest mistakes of inexperienced writers, and should be carefully avoided. 2. After the following verbs, however, which govern a noun or pronoun as one of their two Objects, the verb-noun is correctly preceded by i: — cynghoraf dysgaf galwaf / advise I teach I call galluogaf heriaf / enable • / challenge * rJik caf and ceisiaf take the preposition gan, rc/M; deisyfaf, dymunaf, erfyniaf, the preposition ar, on before the word denoting the pei-son: e.g. ceisiaf gan y dyn fyned, / try to get the man to go; deisyfaf arno ddyfod, / beg nf him to come*
(delwedd F7282) (tudalen 099)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 99 FIFTH FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB + OBJECT + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE OR PREDICATE-NOUN, § 304, V.) 331 As in other languages, the chief verbs that take a Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun referring to the Object are verbs • lenoting to make choose call thinks show leave — the verbs whose passives take a Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun referring to the Subject: e,g, coronwch ef yn ben, crotvn Him Lord, gal want ef yn wynfydedig, they call him blessed, profodd ei hun yn fiyddlon, he proved himself faithful, 335' With other verbs, the Predicate-adjective 6t Predicate-noun referring to the Object denotes (as in § 324, 3) — either {a) the result of an action: — e,g. codasant y mur yn nwch, they raised the wall higher. or (S) what the Object is, was or will be at the time of the action: e,g, OS dywedi y gwir, cei y gwr yn gyfaill, if you speak the trnthf you will find the man a friend, fel, megis, as may be added: e.g. mae yn ei drin fel caethwas, he treats him as a stave. For the use of yn, see § 324, Rule.. For the agreement of the Predicale-adjective, see § 325, Rule. ATTRIBUTES. Agreement of the Adjective as Attribute. 2. mentyll llydain, broad mantles raerched ieuainc, young women 333 T. tair carreg drom, three heavy stones ffordd fer, a, short road caseg wen, a white mare Rules: i. An adjective which has a feminine form in regular use must agree in gender with the fern, noun which it qualifies. 2. An adjective which has a plural form does not always agree in number with the plural noun which it qualifies. If the adjective qualifying a plural noun stands in the singular, the masc. form of the singular must be used, even with plural nouns of the femi-I nine gender.
(delwedd F7283) (tudalen 100)	100 WELSH SYNTAX Obs. — The adjectives — arail, other cyfan, whoU llydan, broad bychan, small gwan, weak marw, dead cadarn, siroitpr ieuanc, young tlawd, poor as well as most adjectives which denote colours, almost always take the plural form with plural nouns. N.B. — A cardinal numeral adj. is always followed by a singular noun. Place of the Adjective as Attribute. )37 1*he adjective generally comes after the noun which it qualifies, but the following adjectives are exceptions: — (a) All the indefinite pronominal adjectives. \b) All numerals— except cyntaf,yfrj/. (r) prff, chief {it, Latin primus). {d) cam, when it means false, (e) unig, when it means only, (/) Usually, gau, false; gwir, true; and hen, old. When, however, these adjectives are qualifieii by one of the adverbs go, rather iawn, very tra, exceedingly they follow the noun. The Noun as Attribute. In Welsh, as in English, the noun is often used as an Attribute, especially to denote material: t,g, wal gerrig, a stone wall; sarff bres, a brazen serpent. Note. — In Modern Welsh such nouns are treated partly as nouns, partly as adjectives: — like nouns they may stand in the plural, like adjectives they undergo initial mutation after feminine nouns. For example, 'gerrig* in *wal gerrig ' is the mutated form of the plural of carreg, stone c changing to g according to the regular rule for initial mutation in adjectives following feminine nouns. Historically, it is not improbable that such nouns were once in the genitive case. Though a noun depending on a noun does not undergo initial mutation in Modern Welsh, in Mediaeval Welsh such mutation was pommon in the case of a noun depending on a feminine noun. KINDS OF SENTENCE. Sentences may be classified as: — I. Statements; II. Will-speech, i.e. Commands, Wishes, Concessions; III. Questions; IV. Exclamations. 338 339
(delwedd F7284) (tudalen 101)	101SElTTEiVCE CONSTRUCTION 10 1 I. STATEMENTS. 340 A. statements of fact (Mood, Indicative: Negative nid, nf, nis, = Greek ov, Latin non): e.,. dyweciodd y gwir, he spoke the truth, B. Conditional statements. These statements may be regarded in Welsh as Conditional sentences with the if-clause omitted: e.g. (i) carvvn ddweyd, I s /wit Id like to say: understanding pe cawn , if I were permitted, (2) hofifas'vn "fyned, I should have liked to go; understanding pe cawswn, if J had been permitted. Rule. — Conditional statements (including hesitating or cautious assertions) are expressed by the Indicative; Neg. nid (nl): by the Past Imperfect Indie, used as a Secondary Future, if referring to present time, as in (i); by the Pluperfect Indie, used as a Secondary Fut Perfect, if referring to past time, as in (2). Note i. — There is a strong tendency at the present day, especially in North Wales, to use the Pluperfect form in buth cases. Note 2. — The 2nd pers. sing, is often indefinite (ti, you = " one," Gk. rtf, Fr, on. Germ, man). Statements in co-ordinate sentences. For the use of a verb-noun in place of a verb in a series of Co-ordinate Sentences see § 323, N.B. II. WILL SPEECH: i.e. COMMANDS, WISHES, CONCESSIONS. According as the will-speech is more or less peremptory, it becomes a command or a mere expression of wish. 341a Commands. • ■ - 1. Commands are expressed by means of the Imperative, the plural of which is the same as the Pres. Indie. P. 2: e.g. dy wed, speak {thou); dywedwch, speak (ye), 2. A pressing request may be expressed by means of the Imperative of gwnaf, followed by a verb-noun as its Object: e.g. gwnewch aros, do stay, N.B. — A polite request which would be expressed in English by the Iniper. Act. S. 2 is generally expressed in Welsh by the Imper. Impers. S. 3; e.g, please read = darllener.
(delwedd F7285) (tudalen 102)	102 WELSH SYNTAX Prohibitions (Negative Commands). Cilb I, Prohibitions are expressed by nac (na) with the Imperative: e.g. nac ofna, do not fear; na ladd, do ttot kilL 2. They are also very commonly expressed by using the Imperative of peidiaf, I cease followed by a verb-noun, with or without the preposition ag (a), with: e,g, peidiwch a myned, do not gOy lit. cease to go\ cf. Lat noUte Ire. Wishes. 342 I. Wishes as to the future may be expressed by using the Pres. Subjunctive: e, gwelwy f y dydd I may I see the day! Duw a*n bendithio! may God bless us! j Cf. Lat. vivat, Gk. {wiy, may he live / Fr. vive le roi! long live the king! 2. Wishes that something were (at the present* time) other than it actually is, are expressed by the Past Imperfect Indicative, used as a Past Imperfect Subjunctive, with 6 nad (na)! lit. oh that not! I but corresponding in usage to the English oh that I Cf. Lat. < utinam viveret, Gk. cic cfi;: i €,g, 6 na bai yn fy w yn awr! would that he were alive now I! 5 na byddai 'n haf o hyd! would that it were always summer / 3. Wishes that something had been (in the past) otherwise than it actually was, are expressed by the Pluperfect Indicative, used as a Pluperfect Subjunctive, with o nad (na); cf. Lat. utinam illis temporibus vixisset, Gk. cic rorc eio): eg, 6 na buasai yn fyw y pryd hynny I would that he had been alive then I o na chawsai ei ddymuniad! would that he had been granted his desire I , * * Obs. I. — The Pluperfect is frequently used at the present day, especially in the Welsh of North Wales, to express wishes as to the past, present, or future: e.g. o na chawswn i fyn'd yfory! oh that 1 may go iO'tnorrow / y o na buasai yn fyw yn awr! would that he were alive now! o na buasai yma dd5e! would thai he had been here yesterday! Obs. 2. — Wishes as to the future are sometimes expressed by using o am, oh for followed by a verb-noun: e>g, o am gyfeirio fy ffyrdd i gadw dy ddeddfau, oh that my ways ntight be directed to keep (i.e. to keeping) thy statutes, Ps. cxix. 5. * This form may also be used with reference to future time.
(delwedd F7286) (tudalen 103)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IO3 4. As the negative adverb nad (na"), not (Greek /xtJ, Lat. ne), is used in affirmative expressions of wish, negative wishes as to the present and the future are usually expressed by means of the Pluperfect of wyf followed by the verb-noun peidio, ceaswfr with the preposition yn ) the verb-noun peidio being followed by the verb-noun denoting the action required, with or without ag(a): e,g, o na buasai yn peidio (a) myned! oh thai he would not go \ lit. oh that he would be a-ceasing from going I Similarly, by the substitution of the preposition wedi, after for yn, ///, a negative wish as to the past may be expressed: e,g, o na buasai wedi peidio (a) myned! oh that he had not gone \ lit. oh that he would be after ceasing from going! 5. A negative wish as to the past may also be expressed by using 6 nad (na) with the Pluperfect of wyf followed by the required verb-noun with the preposition heb, without: e,g, 6 na buasai heb fyned! oh that he had not gone 1 lit oh that he were without going t Concessions. 343 Concessions are expressed by the Imperative. The negative is nac (na) = Gk. /jt>7, Lat. ne: e.g, boed felly, be It so, (Cf. Lat. esto, Gk. ccrro), Fr. soit.) III. QUESTIONS. 344a Questions may take the form of a sentence of normal or inverted order: see Accidence, §§ 283, 285, 286, 287. For the mode of expressing * Yes' and * No' see Accidence, g§ 286, 287. e,g, a welodd y gwas y ceffylau ddoe? did the servant see the horses yesterday? ai y cefi'yJau (a) welodd y gwas ddoe? was It the horses that the servant saw yesterday? a ildaw y mab adref yfory? will the son come home to- morrow? ai y mab (a) ddaw adref yfory? Is It the son that will come home to-morrow? ai adref y daw y mab yfory? Is It home that the son wlh come to-morro7v? ai yfory y daw y mab adref? Is It to-morrow that the son will come home?
(delwedd F7287) (tudalen 104)	I04 WELSH SYNTAX Deliberative Questions. 44b a ydwyf i fyned? am / to jo f beth wyf i\v wneyd? 7a/iat am I to do 7 a oeddwn i dewi? was I to be siUnt? beth oeddwn i'vv ddweyd? what 7uas I to say / I Rule: Deliberative questions {ue, questions as to what is or was to be done) are expressed by using the verb wyf (ydwyf), I am followed by a verb-noun .with the prep, i, to, as in English: when the question refers to present or future time, the Pres. Ind. is used: when the question refers to past time, the Past Imperf. Ind. (Continuous) is used. Ors. —A deliberative question referring to the future may also be expressed by using the Future ( ■■ Present) Indicative: e,g, a ddywedwn ni wrthynt? shall we tell them f Double Deliberative Claestions. 44c y fyned ynte aros? am I to go or stay f a lefarwn ynte tewi? shall we speak or be silent t a oedd i fyned ynte peidio? ivas he to go or notf Rule. — Where a deliberative question contains two alternatives, the second is expressed by means of a verb-noun preceded by the conjunction ynte, or: or not is expressed by ' ynte peidio.' Note.— F-The answer corresponding to the finite verb in the case of a double deliberative question is in the Imperative, the answer corresponding to the verb- noun is a verb- noun: e,g, a lefarwn ynte tewi? Ans, Ilefarwch (verb), or tewi (verb-noun). Modes of introducing questions. 44d I. For the modes of introducing questions which may be answered by * Yes' or *No,' see Accidence, §§ 283, 285. 2. Questions which cannot be answered by * Yes * or * No ' are introduced, as in other languages, by interrogative pronouns, interrogative adjectives or interrogative adverbs, without any interrogative particle. Such questions always take the form of a sentence of inverted order. IV. EXCLAMATIONS. 346 Many of the above-named modes of speech may become exclamatory (/.e. may be used to express emotion): — deced ydy w! how beautiful it is! mor wyn ydy w! how white it is! gymmaint y'th gashaf! hotv { = horv tnuch) I hate you t
(delwedd F7288) (tudalen 105)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IO5 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 346a In a Complex Sentence the Principal Clause and the Subordinate Clause have each a Subject and Predicate of its own; but in Welsh the place of the Subordinate Clause is often taken by a Phrase (§ 308) formed with a verb-noun, which is equivalent in meaning to a Subordinate Clause. Such sentences, though expressing the meaning of Complex Sentences, are in form simple: e,g, — (a) dywedodd fod dyn yno, he said thai there was a man there, lit. he said the being of a man there, (Noun Phrase.) Contrast: — dywedodd nad oedd dyn yno, he said that there was not a man there. (Noxm Clause.) {b) gan iddo orphen, since he finished, lit. owing to him finishing. (Adverb Phrase.) Contrast: — gan na orphenodd, since he did not finish, (Adverb Clause.) In {a) fod is grammatically the Object of dywedodd, and in (b) orphen depends on the preposition gan. For the limitations to the use of a Clause in special cases see S 347 349b, 358b, 367, 368a, 368b. Verb-noun phrases (Clause-equivalents). 846b The following rules as -to the construction of these verb-noun phrases apply ' to all the cases in which they are used (whether as equivalent to Adverb Clduses or to Noun Clauses): Rules. — i. In the case of all verb-noun Phrases, a verb noun takes the place of the verb in a Clause: e.g. gwelais ei ddyfod, I saw that he cathe, lit. I saw his coming. Contrast: — gwelais na ddaeth, I saw that he did not come, cyn ei fyned, before he went, lit. before his going. Contrast: — cyn ) r aeth, before he went.
(delwedd F7289) (tudalen 106)	I06 WELSH SYNTAX 2. The Subject of the corresponding Clause is, in Active constructions, generally represented by placing the required noun or pronoun (or pronominal sutifix) — either {a) with the preposition i, to, before the verb-noun, or ib) „ „ Q*from, after „ „ e.g. gwn iddo orien, / knmu that he finished lit. / knatv to him a fitiishing. gwn orphen ohono, / know that he finished lit / know a finishing from him. cyn i*r dyn orphen, before the man finished lit. before to the man a finishing, cyn gorphen o'r dyn, before the man nished lit. before a finishing from the man. But, where the verb-noun is I'od, being,\ the Subject of the corresponding Clause may be represented, if a noun, by placing the noun immediately after the verb-noun, or, if a pronoun, by employing the corresponding possessive adj. with tbe verb-noun; these rules, however, apply only when bod represents a finite verb in the Pres. Indie. Continuous or the Past Imperf. Indie. Continuous: e.g, gwn fod y dyn yn hen, / know thai the man is old, lit. / know the being of the man old, gwyddwn ei fod yn hen, / knev that he was old lit. / knew his being old: Similarly — er fod y dyn yn h€n, though the man is old lit. in spite of the mans being old; er ei fod yn hen, though he is oldy lit. in spite of his being old, 3. The Object of the corresponding Clause in Active constructions and the Subject in- Passive constructions are. alike represented, if a noun, by placing the noun immediately after the verb-noun, or, if a pronoun, by employing the corresponding possessive adjective with the verb-noun: e.g, wedi iddo weled y dyn, after he saw the man. wedi iddo fy ngweled, after he saw me, clywais golli y dyn, I heard that the man was lost, clywais ei golli, / heard that he was lost, * The use of the prep, o for. this purpose is now almost obsolete in Welsh prose, t A few other intransitive verb-nouns such as dyfod, cowing, myned, coming, machlud, setting, hwyrhau, growing late, and marw, dyings have a similar construction.
(delwedd F7290) (tudalen 107)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IO7 Passive verbs (impersonal forms) are most commonly represented in verb-noun phrases by the verb-noun caei followed by another verb-noun depending upon it. See Accidence, § 280: e.g. dywedodd id do gael ei flino gan anwyd, he said that he was troubled {once) with a cold lit. that he got his troubiirt etc. Note. — The use of the genitive case after the verb-noun in Irish, the non-mutation of a noun following a transitive verh-noun, and the use of possessive adjectives with the verb-noun, all point to the fact that in Welsh the verb-noun was followed by a noun in the genitive case, lhe genitive following a transitive verb-noun and expressing what would be the Object of a transitive verb would correspond to the objective genitive of Greek and Latin, while the genitive following an intransitive verb would correspond to the subjective genitive. These constructions arose at a time when the affinities of the verb-noun to the noun were clearly felt. At the present day, however, we are, on the whole, more conscious of the affinities of the verb-noun to the verb, and, if it were possible for Welsh to develop new case-endings, the case which was once an objective genitive would doubtless become an accusative, and this might possibly also happen to the subjective genitive. N.B. — In Noun Phrases of Statement and the Equivalents of Causal and Concessive Clauses, when the doer of the action expressed by the verb-noun is denoted by the aid of the preposition i or o, the verb-noun generally corresponds to a finite verb in the Aorist or the Pluperfect in a Clause: e.g. gan iddo ddyfod, since he came. gan na ddaeih, since he did not come. Contrast: — gwn ei fod, / knoiv that he is, and gwn iddo fod, I know that he was.
(delwedd F7291) (tudalen 108)	io8 WELSH SYNTAX ADVERB CLAUSES AND PHRASES (§ 313). Adverb Clauses are classined according to the adverbial meaning which they express. Thus we have Adverb Clauses of — (a) Time, introduced by — er pan, since [ = Lat. ex quo] pryd by n nag, whensoever gynted ag. as soon ax [ = Lat. ut primum] gy<ag (gyda), JUS/ as tra, laJii'Ie [ = Lat. dum] nes hyd nes oni ' nnfi/ [ = Iat. donee] hyd oni tan (dan)i cyhyd ag, as long as [ = Lat. quoad] cyn, before r = Lat antequam, priusquamj gwedi, wedi, after [=Lat. post- quam] (b) Place, introduced by — lle, where [ = La ubi] lle bynnag, wherever (c) Beason, introduced by — gan, «wtf, as [ = Lat. quoniatn, cum] am, because, as [ = Lat. quod, quia] pan, si'nce as [ = Lat. quando- quidem, siquidem] (d) Purpose, introduced by — fei 1 modd r '''''' ''"" ' "" nadV)}t="3 (e) Result, introduced by — JJj///a/[ = Latut] (/) Condition, introduced by p|}!/"[=Iat. si] oni, if not [ = Lat. nisi] am, if only [=Lat. dum, dum- modo] {g) Concession, introduced by — er '\ although [ = Lat. quam-serch > quam, quamvis, licet, cyd ) ut, cum] pe,' even if [=Lat. etsi, tametsi] (h) Comparison, introduced by fel, «J [ = Lat. sicut, ut, quemad- modum] po, by ho7v much, in proportion as [ = Lat. quo] nag (na), than [=Lat quam] Comparison. + Condition, introduced by — fel pe, as [— Lat. quasi, velut-si, tamquam, tamquam si] N.B. — Whenever one of these conjunctions (except nad, os, p6, oni and sometimes pe) introduces an affirmative clause of normal order, the verb must be preceded by the proclitic particle yr (y): * Rare. • Often preceded by le, yes, yea*
(delwedd F7292) (tudalen 109)	SENTEMCE COMSTkUCTlON IO9 if the clause be of inverted order, the conjunction mai (S. Wales taw) is put after the conjunction which introduces the Clause (except after nad, po» oni and pe). In Negative Clauses nad (na) is substituted for yr (y) or mai, but mai nid is also occasionally used. (After pan, er pan, tra and tan, the use of yr (y) and that of mai after os, are optional.) e.g, gan y byddai yno, since he would be there, (AfT.) „ na „ „ „ „ „ not be there. (Neg.) „ mai yno y byddai, since it was there that he would be. (Aff.) „ nad „ „ „ „ M >i iot there that he would be (Neg.| Note. — Where the conjunction introducing an adverb clause is identical in form with a preposition, the clause in question may be viewed, historically, as a noun clause governed by a preposition. Temporal Clauses (§ 346* «). 347a!• Those whose action is marked zsfact: — pan orphenodd, aeth adref, when hefinished he went Iiome. mae yn ddig, er pan y daeth yn ol, he is angry ever since he has come back, ni chafodd lawer o gysur tra (y) bu yno, he did not get much comfort while he was there. rhoddwch eich Miwau, cyn yr ewch allan, give your names before you go out. • 2. Those whose action is marked as (cC) prospective, i.e. merely contemplated as a future contingency ; or (b) general: — {a) Prospective: nes machludo yr haul, until the sun shall set. Ch. Edwards, Hanes y Ff)dd, 1671. erbynyr eloch i'ch llety, by the time that, you go {= shall go) to your lodging. Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg, 17 13. wedi yr elo y bechgyn a'r genethod i*r adeilad newydd, after the boys and girls shall have gone to the new building. " Y Genedl," Dec. 28, 1897. ni bydd y sedd yn cael ei chyhoeddi yn wag hyd onid ymgynhullo y Senedd, the seat will not be declared vacant until Parlia?nent meets ( = shall' have met). ** Y Faner," Dec. 29, 1897. It is the contingency of these prospective actions that is mainly suggested by the Subjunctive in Welsh.
(delwedd F7293) (tudalen 110)	110 WELSH S YNTAX {b) General [7Yr-clauses of Time]: mi allaf, pan fynnwyf, gael genthynt bob petli a berthyn, etc., / can, w/tenever I wish, obtain from them everything that belongs y tic. Gr. Roberts, Milan, Hor. 1567. pan byddo fy ngelynion | yn edliw beiau f'oes, whenerer my enemies taunt me with the faults of my life. Emrys. cewch fyned pan y mynnoch, you can go wheneier you wish. cenir cloch pan fyddo cystadleuaeth gorawl i ddechreu, a bell is rung when ( = wheneYer) a choral competition is to commence. Prof. D. M. Lewis in " Y Geninen,*' April, 1893. Rules: — i. Temporal Clauses take the Indicative as in English, when the action is to be marked as fact: Negative nad (na). 2. When the action is to be marked as prospective or general the Temporal Clause takes the Present Subjunctive in present or future time; in past time the Past Imperfect Subjunctive, which is identical, in almost every verb, with the Past Imperfect Indicative (wyf, I am has Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. i. byddwn and bawn; cf has Past Imperf. Subj. S. i. caffwn and cawn): Neg. nad (na). Obs I. — The use of the Subjunctive has become rare in current Welsh prose, and many of the expressions in which it occurs are stereotyped expressions like, fel y mynno, as he pleases; doed a ddelo, conie what m ty, etc. Obs. 2. — The conjunctions pryd bynnag, gydag (gyda), nes, hyd nes, oni, hyd oni, cyn and gwedi (wedi) do not take a negative clause, and gwedi (wedi) rarely takes a clause of past time. Equivalent Plirases. 317b ' place of an affirmative Clause of Time is often taken by a • verb-noun phrase introduced by one of the prepositions cyn, before] erbyn, by (of time); gwedi (wedi), after] gydag (gyda), with; nes, hyd nes, until; wrth, at; and sometimes er, since: e.g. erbyn imi gyrhaedd, yr oedd y drws wedi ei gau, by the time that I arrived the door was closed. cyn i*r dyn ddyfod, yr oeddwn yn canu, before the man came, I was singing, af allan nes i*r cerbyd ddyfod, / shall go out unfii the carriage comes.
(delwedd F7294) (tudalen 111)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION III wedi inii edrych, yr oedd wedi myned, when I looked, ht had gone. cyn fy mod wedi gofyn, yr oedd ef wedi dweyd, before I had asked, he had spoken. wrth iddo redeg, yr oedd yn gwaeddi, as he ran, he s/iouted. The Subject and the Object of the corresponding Clause are represented according to the rules given in § 346b, p. 106. Compare with these equivalents the French use of aprs, a/ter jusqu' up to, avant de, before, with the infinitive (where there is no change of Subject): e,g. aprs avoir lu, il s'endort, after having read, he falls asleep. aprs avoir lu, il s*endorniit, after having read, he fell asleep. Also en, /«, with the gerund: e.g, en lisant, while reading = wrth ddarllen. Local Clauses (§ 346 ♦ b). 348 I. Local Clauses (Clauses of Place) take, for the most part, the same constructions as Temporal Clauses (Clauses of Time). The word lle which introduces them probably represents an old ablative or locative (= in the place), and it is not unlikely that it was once the antecedent of the proclitic yr, which may have meant in which: see Accidence, 167, 16S. 2. In Modern Welsh Prose, the Subjunctive is only occasionally found in Local Clauses and then, as a rule, only before forms like byddo (bo), gallo, and mynno, in certain stereotyped expressions: eg. lle y bo, wherever he may be; lle y mynno, wherever he will. 3. The Nejiative is nad (na), but nid (ni) is not unfrequently used, especially where the action is emphasised as a fact. • 4. The following are instances of the Subjunctive in Local Clauses: — (i) Prospective: ni feiddia hi ddywedyd ei meddwl lle bwyfi, she will not • dare to speak her mind where I shall be. Morgan Llwyd, c. 1653. aed He y mynno, let him go whithersoever he shall wish. ' arhosed lle y caffo lonydd, let him stay where he shall have peace.
(delwedd F7295) (tudalen 112)	112 WELSH SYNTAX (2) General (z'fr-Clauses of Place): lle pallo'r grym, ewyllys da a haedda gloJ, w/urzer strength fails a good will describes praise, Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. gwir felly a ddywed y philosophydd na bydd uniawn barn lle bo cariad ne gas yn rheoli, t/u philosopher tlurefore says truly that iudgwent will not be sounds wheryrr lave or hate rules, Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. lle bo dolur y bydd Haw, whertiet there is a wound t/ure is a hand. Welsh Proverb. 349a 349b Causal Clauses ( § 346 * c). afallan, gan nad yw yn gwlawio, I shall go out since it is not raining, gorphenwch eich gwaith, gan y byd<l yn nos yn fuan, finish your worky as it will soon be night, ysgrifenwch yn fuan, am y carwn gael ateb, 7vrite soon, as J should like to have an answer. Rule. — Causal Clauses take the Indicative: Neg. nad (nS). The use of the Causal Clause is practically limited (as in the case of Concessive Clauses and Noun Clauses of Statement) to cases in which the clause is negative, or when its tense is — either a Present used as a Present Habitual or as a Future, or a Past Imperfect used either as a Past Imperfect Habitual or as a Secondary Future (§§ 501, 502), or a Plupeifect used as a Secondary Future Perfect (§§ 521, 523)- Equivalent Phrases. The place of affirmative Causal Clauses is largely supplied in Welsh by verb-noun phrases depending on one of the prepositions gan, am, oherwydd, oblegid (§§ 288, 298). When the verb of the corresponding Clause is in the Aorist or the Pluperfect (sometimes also in the Perfect), the doer of the action is denoted by the aid of the prep, i or o: e.g, oherwydd i mi orphen, because I finished. aeth ailan oblegid iddo gael digon, he went out because he had had enough, a ydych yn ddig am i'r llanc ddyfod? are you angry because the lad has come? When the verb of the corresponding Clause is in the Present 350
(delwedd F7296) (tudalen 113)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II3 Tense and marks an action as now going on or a state as now ixisiing or is in the Past Imperfect and marks an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing, bod is employed, followed by the required verb-noun with yn: e.g. gan ei fod yn gweled, since he sees; gan na wel, since he does not see. gan ei fod yn gweled, since he saw; gan na welai, since he did not see. Similarly bod followed by a verb-noun with wedi, expresses a Perfect or a Pluperfect: e.g. gan fod y dyn wedi myned, since the man has (or had) gone. The Subject of the corresponding Clause is represented with bod in these cases as described in § 346b. Cf. the French Clause-equivalents (without change of Subject): pour avoir, r having \ en voulant, by 7vishing, because one wishes. Final Clauses {$idfi*d), ac yno y gwna i'r newynog aros, fel y darparont ddinas i gyfaneddu, atid there He maketh the hungry to dtvell that they may prepare a city for habitation, Ps. cvii. 36. tyfiant gwastad yw bywyd cenedl: y mae iddo ei wreiddiau yn y gorphenol, fel y gallo ddwyn ffrwyth yn y dyfodol, the life of a nation is a steady grotvth, it has its roots in the past, that it may be able to bear fruit in the future. Dean Howell in " Y Geninen," April, 1893. nid gwiw i ddynion garu Duw fel y gallont gashau dynion, // is not right that men should love God in order that they may hate men, " Y Genedl," Dec. 28, 1897. gweithiai fel y gallai enill ei fara beunyddiol, he worked that he might earn his daily bread, RuLES.-i. Final Clauses properly take the Subjunctive; but this use of the Subjunctive. is now being more and more supplanted by the Indicative: Negative nad (na). 2. in order that . . . not is rhag, fel nad, nad: lest . • • not is rhag nad (na). ' * If the verb of the Clause be one of the following: adwaen, / know; clywaf, / hear \ gallaf, I am able; gwelaf, / see; gwn, I know; raeddaf, / possess; and medraf, / am able; this meaning may be expressed by means of a clause.
(delwedd F7297) (tudalen 114)	114 WELSH S YNTAX 351 352a Equivalent Phrases. The place of affirmative Final Clauses is very largely supplied in Welsh by verb-noun phrases introduced by the prepositions i, er, rhag, and the prepositional phrase er mwyn. (Where the verb-noun phrase contains the preposition i, another preposition i is not added; one i does duty for both.) af i'r ty er mwyn imi gael gorphwys, / shall go into the house to have rest ( = in order that I may have rest). aeth i'r ty er mwyn iddo gael gorphwys, he went into the house to have rest {=in order that he might have rest), daeth i*r ystafell i ysgrifenu, he came to the room to write. ewch allan i chwi gael gweled rhy wbeth, go out that you may see something. gofalwch rhag i chwi gael anwyd, take care lest you should get a cold. Cf. the French equivalents of a Final Clause (without change of Subject): pour aller, /// order to go; afin de vivre, in order to live', Gk. ov\€V€aOatj tov PovXivttrBai, in order to deliberate-, Lat ad deliberandum, deliberandi causa, deliberatum (supine), in order to deliberate; Germ, zu geben, urn zu geben, in order to give; as well as the English infinitive with tOy in order to. Consecutive Clauses (§ 346*). fel ') arhosodd yn y gwlaw, iy gwlychodd drwyddo, he stayed 11 Vm 1 in the rain, so that he got wet through. mae ei ddewrder yn gyfryw, fcl nad yw yn ofni dim, Ms courage is such that he fears nothing. aydych.chwi nior ddeillion nas gallwch fy ngweled? are you so blind that you cannot see me? yr hwn sydd yn cynhyrfu y ddaear allan o*i lle, fel y cryno ei cholofnau hi, which shaketh the earth out of her place, and {'=that) the pillars thereof tremble. Job ix. 6. Rules. — i. Result is expressed by means of fel and nes: fel may take the negative nad (na), but nes is never used with the negative. For fel nad (na), nad (na) alone is sometimes used. 2. The mood is the Indicative, but instances with the Subjunctive are occasionally found.
(delwedd F7298) (tudalen 115)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 115 352b Equivalent Phrases. Consecutive verb-noun phrases are introduced by the preposition nes: e.g. arhosodd yn y gwlaw, nes iddo wiychu, he stayed in the rain so that he got wet, edrychai yr athraw mor ddlg, nes i'r plentyn ddychryn, the master looked so angry that the child was frightened, Cf. the French equivalents of a Consecutive Clause (without change of Subject) formed by means of en sorte de, de manifere \ de fagon k, with the infinitive. Fr. Gram. § 352.* If-Clauses (§ 346*/)- 353 I. A Complex Sentence, consisting of an Adverb-Clause of Condition (the If clause, sometimes called the Protasis) and a Principal Clause (sometimes called the Apodosis), is called a Conditional Sentence. 2 Conditional Sentences maybe divided into two main classes — A. Those in which the Principal Clause does not speak of what would be or would have been and the If-clause implies nothing as to fact or fulfilment: e.g, if this is correct, that is incorrect: os y w hyn yn gywir, mae hynyna yn anghywir. . B. Those in which the Principal Clause speaks of what would be or would have been, and the If-clause contains an implication as to fact or fulfilment: . e,g, pe delai y brenin, llawenychem, // the king were to come (implying * I do not say that he will come '), we should rejoice. pe delsai y brenin, llawenychasem, // the king had come (implying * he did not come '), we should have rejoiced. Ors. — In some languages there is a less important class (Clas C) resembling Class A, in which the Principal Clause is the same as in Class A, but the If-clause contains a slight implication as to fact or fulfilment. In Welsh this implication can be indicated only by the tone of the voice.
(delwedd F7299) (tudalen 116)	Il6 WELSH SYNTAX Class A (Conditional Sentences containing os-clauses). 354 Past time: os gweithredodd felly, yr oedd ar fai, // he acicd so, he was in the wronts. Present time: os y\v yn gwiethredu felly, mae ar fai, // he acts so, he is in the wrong. Futuie time: os gweithreda felly, bydd ar fai, if he acts { = shall act) sOy he will be in the wrong. OS na weithreda felly, bydd ar fai, unless he acts { shall act) sOy he will be in the wrong. Rules. — i. When the Principal Clause does not speak of what would be ox would have been *if' is expressed by os,* and the mood of the If-clause is the Indicative. Negative nad (na): but for os nad (os na) we sometimes find onid (oni).t 2. The time referred to need not be the same in both clauses: 'g* OS gweithredodd felly, ni Iwydda, if he acted so (in the past), he will not succeed (in the future). OS yw wedi cychwyn, fe ddaw, if he has started he will come, 3. The Principal Clause of this class is free, i.e. may contain a Statement in the Indicative, or an expression of Command or Wish: e.g. OS wyt yna, tyr'd yma, if thou art there come here, OS y w yn foddlon, boed felly, if he is willing be it so. 354b' General Conditions are a subordinate variety of If-clause without implication, in which Mf* = * if ever'; the Principal Clause expressing a habitual action or a general truth: — OS lladda neb, fe'i cosbir, // any one kills he will be punished OS lladdai neb, fe'i cosbid, if any one killed he was punished, • In clauses of this type,, os byth is often used for * if ever.* Class B (Conditional Sentences containing pe- clauses). 355 Past time: pe gwnelsai hyn, buasai ar fai, // he had done this he would have been in the wrong. Present time: pe gwnelai hyn, byddai ar fai, // he were doing thisy he would be in the wrong. Future time: pe gwnelai hyn, byddai ar fai, if he were to do this, he would be in the wrong, * For OS, 5 and od are sometimes found. f o-f nj.
(delwedd F7300) (tudalen 117)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II7 Rules. — i. When the Principal Clause speaks of what would be or ivonld have beeri, 'if is expressed by pe,* and the tense of both the If clause and the Principal Clause is — the Past Imperf.f when referring to pres. or fut. time. the Pluperf. when referring to past time. The Neg. is nad (na); but for pe nad (pe na), we sometimes find onid (oni). 0ns. — These tenses may possibly be regarded as tenses of the Subjunctive in the If-clause, corresponding to the English .Subjunclive {e,g. were); in the Principal Clause they are tenses of the Indicative, the Past Impf. being used as a Secondary Future and the Pluperfect as a Secondary Fut. Perf. corresponding to the so-called "Conditionnel" in French (see §§ 501, 502, 521, 522). In most verbs the Past Imperfect and the Pluperfect Subjunctive are indistinguishable in form from the corresponding tenses of the Indicative, but a distinction seems to have been developed in the Past Imperfect of wyf and caf; and the instances in which these verbs are used may be considered as determining the rule for all other instances. So too in English, " if I had " might be Indie, but " if I were " can only be a Subjunctive. 2. An If-clause referring to past time may be joined to a Principal Clause referring to present time and vice versa: e.g, pe na buaswn wedi ei weled, byddai yn anhawdd gennyf gredu, if I had not seen him I should find it hard to beliefe, 3. * if-only * is expressed by means of am, followed by a verb in the Present Subjunctive or in the Future Indicative, if the verb in the main clause be in a tense of present or future time; in the Past Imperfect Subjunctive, if the verb of the main clause be in a tense of past time: e,g, fe fydd yn dawel, am y caiff ddigon o arian, he will be content if only he has ( = shall have) sufficient money, fe fyddai yn dawel, am y cafFai ddigon o arian, he used to be content, if only he had sufficient money. 356 N.B. — am, if only, is not used to introduce negative clauses. Eqaivalent Phrases. 357 I. Conditional verb-noun phrases introduced by the prepositions oddieithr, oddigerth, except, are used to express a negative condition: '' oddierth} ™' " 5"' ' * pe, if (occasionally ped and pes), has arisen from pei (an old form of the Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. 3. of wyf )=bei=bai, were it. See Appendix, t The Past Imperf. Habitual in the case of wyf.
(delwedd F7301) (tudalen 118)	Il8 WELSH SYNTAX 2. Mfonly' may be expressed by the conjunction ond, 3«/, followed by a verb-noun phrase: e.g, ond imi gael hamdden, if only I have { shall have) leisure, 3. Sometimes a verb-noun phrase introduced by one of the prepositions wrth, by, drwy, through, may be considered as the equivalent of a Conditional Clause: e.g. ni hvydda neb wrth ddiogi, no one will succeed by idling ( = if he idles), Cf. the possible French equivalent of a Conditional Clause (without change of Subject), formed by means of *en' with the Gerund: e.g, en agissant, by actings: if he acts, Fr. Gram. § 357. Concessive Clauses (§ 346*). 358a The Principal Clause* corresponding to a Concessive Clause has an adversative meaning, Le. it expresses what is true in spite of what is granted or conceded: '' , Ina bydd ef ei hun yno, bydd ei galon yno, though he will not be there himself his heart will be there, er nad y w y tad yma, mae y mab yma, though the father is not here, the son is here, fe erys yn yr un fan, er y bydd hynny yn anfantais iddo, he will stay in the same place, though tluit will be a disadvantage to him. Rules. — i. The mood in clauses introduced by er and serch is the Indicative. Neg. nad (na). 2. pg, even if, (often preceded by ie, yes, yea) is used with the Past Imperfect as in § 355. The main clause generally has a verb in the Past Imperfect Indicative used as a Secondary Future, or in the Pluperfect Indicative used as a Secondary Future Perfect (see § 522), but the Future is also sometimes used. Neg. nad (na): e,g, ie, pe rhodiwn ar 'hyd glyn cysgod angeu, nid ofnaf niwed, yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, Ps. xxiii. 4. 3. cyd, though (rare), takes the Subjunctive Mood. Neg. nad (na): e,g, cyd na byddo ond ammod dyn, though it be but a man*s covenant. Gal. iii. 5. N.B. — Concessive Clauses are subject to the same limitations of usage as Causal Clauses (§§ 349a, 349b).
(delwedd F7302) (tudalen 119)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 119 Equivalent Phrases. 358b!• 'T' place of Concessive Clauses is very largely supplied by the use of verb-noun phrases: h f " y' myned, though I am goiftg {was „ iy mod wedi myned, though I have gone {had gone), er ") . . serch \ " Oicl, though I went {had gone), N.B. — Concessive phrases are employed under the same conditions as Causal phrases (§ 349b). 2. Sometimes Concessive Clause-equivalents are introduced by the preposition dros, over: e,g, fe ddaw yma, dros iddo orfod cerdded, he will come here, though he might have to walk, 3. Cf. the French equivalents of a Concessive Clause (without change of Subject) formed by means of pour with the infinitive and en with the gerund (Fr. Gram. § 358): e.g, pour aimer un mari, I'on ne hait pas ses frres, though one should love a husband one need not hate ons brothers, tout en aiinant ses enfants, elle les nlige, though she laves her children, she neglects them. Comparative Clauses (§346*//). 359a Comparative Clauses fall into two divisions, according as they are introduced by words meaning (i) *as,' (2) *than,' thus corresponding to the Comparative of Equality and the Comparative proper respectively. A. Introduced by words meaning /as': e.g, ag (after Comparatives of Equality), fel, fel ag, megis, megis ag: nid yw cyn gyfoethoced ag y bu, he is not so. rich as he was, mae y peth fel yr wyf yn dweyd, the thing is as I say, aeth yno fel ag yr oedd, he went there just as he ivas, gwnaeth megis y dy wedodd, he did as he ha4 said. Rules. — i. Words meaning * as * almost always take the Indicative in Modern Welsh, though the Subjunctive is sometimes found in such expressions as — fel y mynno, as he may wish; fel y gallo, as he may be able \ fel y bo, as it may be:
(delwedd F7303) (tudalen 120)	120 WELSH SYNTAX e.g. boed hynny fel y bo, be that as it may (Sul)j.). Contrast: mae hynny fel yr oedd, i/tat is as it was (Indie). pwy ohonoch a draethodd y gelhvch 'i orchymyn angylion Duw fal y mynnoch eych hunan? 7v/io of you stated that you can command the angels of God as you yourselves wish { = shall or may wish)? M. Kyffin, 1595. megis ag y byddo pob un wedi darfod, fust as each shall have finished. C. Edwards, 1671. pob un fel y gallo allan o'r Ysgrythyrau Sanctaidd, each as he may be able out of the Holy Scriptures. C. Edwards, 167 1. 2. If the same verb belongs to both clauses of the sentence, it is often omitted in the Comparative Clause: e,g, derbyniasant eu gilydd fel brodyr, they received each other as brethren, 3. The more the more is expressed by using the Superlative preceded by p6 (the old Ablative of the interrogative pronoun) at the beginning of the one clause, and at the beginning of the other the Superlative alone: e.g, po iachaf y bo dyn, cryfaf 611 fydd, the healthier a man is, the stronger he will be. Contrast Latin guo . . . eo with Comparatives, jg* After po with the Superlative, the Subjunctive is not unfrequently used. B. Introduced by nag (na), than: gwell (y w) tewi na siarad yn ofer, // is better to be silent than to talk vainly: for nag ydyw siarad, etc. Rule. — nag (na), than takes the Indicative, which is often omitted when the same verb js used in both clauses. Equivalent Phrases. 359b Sometimes the word uwch, the Comparative of uchel, high, used as a preposition,* introduces a phrase which is equivalent in meaning to a Comparative Clause: e,g, maent uwch eu prisio, uwch eu deall, they are too exalted to be appraised or understood (lit above appraising, above understanding. Cf. Lat. Gram. § 360: Gk. Gram. § 360, 2.) ■ * The word following uwch was doubtless originally in an oblique case corresponding to the Greek Genitive of Comparison and the Latin Ablative of Comparison,
(delwedd F7304) (tudalen 121)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 121 Combinatiotts of * as * and * than ' (represencin? a Comparative Clause) with a Clause of Condition. 360 r. mae yn cerdded, fel pe bai yn frenin, /le 7oaiks as if he were a kin<. rhedodd fel pe biiasai am ei fywyd, he ran as if it had been for his life. mae cyn galeted a phe buasai yn garreg, /'/ is as hard as if it had been a stone. Rule. — as if {as would be the case if) is expressed by §. ph6 (after the Comparative of Equality), or fel pe, with the same construction as pg, if § 355 [Latin: quasi, velut Si, tamquam si; Gk. wrrrtp ci or iLavep av ci]. 2. meddalach ydyw na phe buasai yn ymenyn, // is softer than ' if it had been butter. Rule. — than if { than would be the case if ) is expressed by na phe (after the Comparative proper) with the same construction as pe, if § 355. 361 Absolute Phrases (for Absolute Clauses). The Welsh equivalent for the so-called Absolute Clauses of other languages (Latin Ablative Absolute, Greek Genitive Absolute, English Nominative Absolute) is a phrase in which the participle of Latin, Greek and English is replaced by a verb-noun with one of the prepositions yn, in; wedi, after \ ar, on; am, about \ heb, without (see § 240); the phrase as a whole being preceded by the word ac (a): e.g, aeih i'r ystafell a'r dynion yn bwyta, he went into the room while the people were eating [Lat. hominibus edentibus: Gk. Toiv dvOpttiTrfav ctrtoKTwvl. arosasant yno a'r tan wedi diffodd, they stayed there after the fire had gone out, . buont yn ymdroi a'r tr€n ar gychwyn, they loitered while the train was on the point of starting, dy wedasant wrtho ac yntau heb ofyn, they told him though he had not asked. Note. — As ac, and and ajj, w/VA, are only the same word applied to different uses and differently spelt, it is highly probable that ac, in the phrases in question, should be looked upon as the preposition ag, xoith (with its old spelling ac preserved). Hence the Welsh mode of expression is parallel with the Latin idiom in its original meaning, the Ablative Absolute having origin-
(delwedd F7305) (tudalen 122)	122 WELSH SYNTAX ated in an Ablative denotinq Accompaniment or Cause or Time; for instance, the Latin, * Troja stante,' Troy siauditt and the Welsh *a Chaerdroia yu scfyll ' may both have originally meant * with Troy standing.' The place of the preposition and the verb-noun may be taken by a Predicate- noun or a Predicate-adjective: g. aeth allan \'''\ ;;'>"' >" «'' ** (a hithau „ „ , . . ( though the wind was cold. he went out { j , s tj \t hough tt was cold. Obs. I. — In Absolute Phrases, the conjunctive personal pronouns (see Accidence, §§ 130, 131, 132) are largely employed. Obs. 2. — In meaning, an Absolute Phrase maybe equivalent to a Temporal, Causal, Conditional or Concessive Clause. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (§ 313). 362 I. Adjective Clauses are introduced by Relative pronouns, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, pwy bynnag, referring to a noun or noun-equivalent called the. Antecedent, expressed or implied in the Principal Clause, or by one of the quasi-relatives ag, ar, or by one of the proclitics a, yr (y). . 2. A Relative Clause takes the form of a sentence of inverted order; hence, if the Subject or the Object precede the verb, the verb will be immediately preceded by the word a; if some other word or group of words comes first, hy the word yr (y). (See p. 83, note, and Appendix). Obs. I. — a is frequently omitted; M(ith the orms wyf etc., 6eddwn etc., and with sydd it is never used. Obs. 2. — In Relative Clauses where yr hwn, y n6b, y sawl or pwy bynnag are ' expressed, it is certain that the modern Welsh mind attaches the relative force to these words and not to the a or yr (y) which immediately precedes the verb. The latter are, from the point of view of Welsh descriptive grammar, mere ' form* words,' and, in the words of Dr. Da vies, a is an adverb or particle of no meaning prefixed to verbs (** A item est adverbium seu particula verbis preposita nihil significans "). So strongly is this felt that, when the proclitics a and yr (y) are used alone in Relative Clauses, a Welshman ignorant of their history naturally imagines the omission of yr hwn. See § 573, 576.
(delwedd F7306) (tudalen 123)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 123 3. In place of yr hwn and y rhai, pa un and pa rai (cf. Breton * pere ') are sometimes used, but these forms are not considered very elegant. Even yr hwn and y rhai should not be used too frequently, especially after prepositions. The form of expression given in Accidence ) 168 will often be found useful in translating English Relative Clauses. Agreement of the Relative, 363 I. In idiomatic Welsh every relative introducing an affirmative clause is looked upon as of the 3rd pers. sing, and the verb of which it is the Subject is made to agree with it; in negative Relative Clauses the Relative agrees with its Antecedent in person and number: e,g, gwelsomy dynion y rhai a fu yno, ky saw the men who were there. yr wyf yn eich hoffi chwi, na fuoch yn gas wrthyf, / am fond ofyou'who were not unkind to me, pawb sydd yn pwyso atat ti | a wrendy weddi dostur, all incline towards thee, who hearest a prayer for mercy, E. Prys. ni a'th adwaenom di a'th ddawn | i'r rhai sydd uniawn galon, we knaiv thee and thy bounty to t/iem that are upright in heart, E. Prys. 2. For a long time, however, there has been a strong and perfectly intelligible tendency, especially where the linguistic consciousness is bilingual, to make the verb of the Relative Clause agree with its Antecedent as in Latin and English. This tendency is strongest and most natural in cases where it seems desirable to call attention to the person and number of the verb in the Relative Clause: e.g, ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nefoedd, our Father, who art in heaven. Here the use of wyt rather than sydd forcibly reminds the reader that the clause in question is used in address and not in narrative.
(delwedd F7307) (tudalen 124)	124 WELSH SYNTAX Moods in Relative Clauses. 364 I. Relative Clauses whose action is marked as fact: — gwelais y ty y buoch ynddo, / /ia7'e seen the house in which you have ifeen, dyma y llyfr a ddarllenasom, here is the book which we have read, y wlad na welais, the country which I did not see, J „ - ( dros yr hwn y daethom, ) ., . ., dyna y gwr J J l | there ,s the man on whose behalf ive have come, 2. Relative Clauses whose action is marked as {a) prospective i.e. merely contemplated as a future contingency; or (b) general: (a) Prospective: heb genfigen wrth n$b a wnelo yn well nag 6f, without envying anyone who should do better than he. Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. nid ofni rhag dychryn nos na rhag y saeth a ehedo y dydd, thou shall not fear from dread by night nor from the arrow thatfheth ( = shally?)) by day. Psalm xci. 5. efe a wna yr hyn a fynnwyf, he will do whaterer I shall 7vish, . j na friwa'r Haw a estyno, hurt not the hand that stretches out (= shall stretch out), Charles Edwards, 167 1. {b) General: (Here ar, y sawl, y ngb and pwy bynnag are mainly employed to introduce the Relative Clause): 1 ddyscu helpu, diddanu a pherpheiddio gwyr fy ngwlad ymhob p€th a fo golud iddynt, to teach help, interest and perfect my countrymen in all that may be a boon to them, Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. pwy bynnag ar a laddo, whosoever kills. M. Cyffin, 1595. a'r sawl ni phlycco iddo a ddryllir, and whosoeYer does not, submit to him will be destroyed, Morgan Llwyd, 1653 yn rhoddi ei crugaredd i*r n€b a fynno, giving his m'ercy to whomsotYtr he wishes, C. Edwards, 167 1. y sawl a ddiango o'i bachau hi, gwyn ei fyd byth; whosotiet . 1 escapes from her clutches may he be for ever blessed, Elis Wyn, 1713. dyweded y neb a fyno, let whoso&7er will speak, **YFaner,'' Dec. 29, 1897. nis gall godi rhyw lawer ar syniad y neb a*i darlleno, // cannot make the opinion ofwhoYr reads it much higher, "YGenedl,"Dec. 28, 1897.
(delwedd F7308) (tudalen 125)	sentencm cdNSTktJCTioM 125 Rules. — Relative Clauses almost always take the Indicative Mood in Modern Welsh. The Subjunctive is now rare, but is sometimes found in clauses where the action is to be marked as prospective or ge?ieraL The general is often combined with the prospective meaning. The negative is generally nid (ni), especially where the action is to be marked zsfaci in clauses mtroduced by ar, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl and pwy bynnag: in negative clauses corresponding to affirmative clauses in which the a or yr (y) would be used alone, the negative is nad (na), but nid (ni) is also sometimes used. In all negative clauses a and yr (y) are omitted. 3. Final and Consecutive Relative Clauses: — anfonwn genad yno, yr hwn a rydd derfyn ar yr ymrafael, we shall send a messenger therCy who shall put an end to the dispute, (Final.) nid oes undyn a allai oddef peth felly, there is no one who could stand such a thing as that, (Consecutive), dechymyger rywbeth arall a fo gwell nag ef, let something else be imagined that shall be better than it. Dr. J. D. Rhys, 1592. lle bo gwr o ddysg a wypo ei deilyngdod, where there may be a man of learning who kno7VS his worth, E. Samuel, 1674-1748. Rule. — In the special kinds of Relative Clause called Final and Consecutive the Indicative Mood is employed, but instances of the Subjunctive are found. N.B. — A Relative Clause which cites an act only to exhibit the character of the Antecedent may be called a " Characterizing Relative Clause ": e.g. nid oes neb nad yw yn pechu, there is no one that does not sin.
(delwedd F7309) (tudalen 126)	1 26 WELSH S YNTAX NOUN CLAUSES AND PHRASES. 365 Noun Clauses may be divided into two main classes: A. That-clauses: (i) Those which express that something /j, was or will be (Dependent Statements): e.g. gwn y bydd yn ufudd, / knaiv that he will be obedient, (ii) Those which express that something shall be or should be (Dependent Wiil-speech *): e.g. gofalaf y bydd yn ufudd, I shall take care that he shall be cledicnt: gorchymynaf na byddo yn anufudd; / order that he shall not be disobedient. B, Those which are introduced by an interrogative or exclamatory word: (i) Interrogative (Dependent Ctuestions): e.g. gofynafaydyw yn ufudd, / ask whether he is obedient. (ii) Exclamatory (Dependent Exclamations): e.g. rhyfedd mor ufudd ydyw heddyw, // is strange ho7v obedient he is to-day. Rule. — As a general rule, the mood in Noun Clauses is the Indicative: but in Dependent Will-speech after verbs of commanding entreating, praying, wishing, which are followed by negative clauses only, the Present or Past Imperfect Subjunctive is used. Negative nad (na). N.B. — Whether a Noun Clause is a Dependent Statement or Dependent Will-speech, or a Dependent Question or a Dependent Exclamation does not depend upon the verb of the Principal Clause, but upon the nature of the Subordinate Clause itself, i.e. whether that clause is a Statement (i.e. a statement of fact or a conditional statement) or an expression of aim, command, or request, or a question or an exclamation. (See § 340.) Thus * that it is iwas or ivill be) ' is always a Dep. Statement. * that it shall be (or should be) ' is always Dep. Will-speech, * what (or hdtv) it is ' is a Dep. Question when the * what ' or * how ' is interrogative, and a Dep. ' Exclamation when the 'what' (or *how') is exclamatory. In certain cases phrases formed with verb-nouns are used as substitutes for Dependent Statementsand Dependent Will-speech, but not for Dependent Questions and Deiendent Exclamations. * By Dependent Will-speech is only meant a clause which expresses that something shall be or should be. Such a clause differs from a Dependent Statement (whether of fact or conditionaH just as Will-speech in the Simple Sentence differs from a Statement.
(delwedd F7310) (tudalen 127)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 127 Dependent Statements and Dependent Requests. Modes of introducing Noon Clauses of Statement and of Will-speech. 366 Noun Clauses of Statement and of Will-speech are introduced as follows: (a) When affirmative and of normal order, by the proclitic particle yr (y), placed immediately before the verb of the clause: {p) When affirmative and of inverted order, by the conjunction mai; for the history of mai see Appendix: '■'' &1' } - >;- y <-'. i £ car. } '' '•' -- here that he , / , > come, should J (c) When negative and of normal order, by nad (na); when negative and of inverted order, by nad (before both vowels and consonants), or, less elegantly, by mai nid: e». dywedodd nad elai gartref, he said that he would not go home. dywedodd nad gartref yr elai, he said that it was not home that he would go. Employment of Noun Clauses of Statement and Equivalent Phrases. 367 Noun Clauses of Statement are employed as follows (as in Causal and Concessive Clauses, §§ 349a, 358a):— 1. In all cases in which the Dependent Statement is negative. 2. In all cases in which the 'Dependent Statement has inverted, order. 3. In some cases in which the Dependent Statement is affirmative and of normal order, viz. when the tense of the Clause is — either a Present used as a Present Habitual or as a Future; or a Past Impeifect used as a Past Impeifect Habitual or as a Secondary Future; or a Pluperfect used as a Secondary Future Perfect Occasionally, also, when the tense is Aorist
(delwedd F7311) (tudalen 128)	128 Welsh syntax In all other cases Noun Phrases are employed, the doer of the action being denoted as follows: — (a) by the aid of the preposition i or o (§ 346b, 2), when the verb- noun corresponds to a verb in the Aorist or the Pluperfect with past meaning: e.g. gwn iddo orphen, I know (hat he finished; gwyddwn iddo orphen, / knew that Ju had finished. (p) without the aid of a preposition, by means of a dependent noun or a possessive adjective, when the verb- noun is bod corresponding to the true Present wyf, wyt, mae, etc., or to the true Past Imperfect oeddwn, oeddit, oedd, etc, in a Clause (§ 346b, 3): e.g, gwn fod y dyn yn myned, / know that the man is going; gwn ei fod wedi myned, / know that he has gone. Obs. — If th* verb of the dependent clause be one of the following: adwaen, adnabyddaf, /recognise [Lat. cognosce] cly waf, / hear gallaf, I am able a clause may be employed even when t gwelaf, / see gwn, I kfunv \\jaX, ic\'\ meddaf, /possess medraf, / am able le Present tense marks an action as new going on or a state as now exis/tng or the Past Imperfect marks an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing, or, less frequently, when the Pluperfect refers to past time. Employment of Nonn Clauses of Will-speech and Equivalent Phrases. After Verbs of Effort (§ 369a, 9). 368a '• o Effort may take either a Noun Clause (affirmative or negative) or a Noun Phrase: €.g. gofalaf y bydd y gwas yno ) I fake (or shall take) caretha, gofalaf fod y gwas yno J the servant shall be there. gofelais y byddai y gwSs yno) / took care that the servant gofelais fod y gwas yno • j should be there. 2. A Noun Phrase depending on the verb gofalaf, / take care, is generally preceded by the fixed preposition am, /or: e.g. gofelais am iddo fod yno, / took care that he should be there. 3. In Noun Phrases depending on a verb of Effort the doer of the action is generally denoted — either (a) by means of a dependent noun or a possessive adjective (§ 346b, 3) when the verb noun is bod , or {p) by means of the prep, i or o in the case of all verb-nouns (bod included). (§ 346b, 2).
(delwedd F7312) (tudalen 129)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 1 29 After Verbs of Will and Desire (§ 369a, 10). 368b I. A verb of Will or Desire takes a Noun Clause onlv when the Dependent Will-speech is negative or of inverted order: e,g. gorchymynodd nad elwn yno, he ordered thai I should not go thither. dymunaf mai John a gaiff y wobr, *I wish that John should have the prize.' 2. If the Dependent Will-speech is affirmative and of normal order, many verbs of Will or Desire take neither a Noun Clause nor a Noun Phrase, but simply two Objects in a Simple Sentence with a Predicate of the Fourth Form (§ 333); so too in English: e.g, gorchymynaf iddo fyned, I order him to go, crefais arno ddyfod, I begged of him to come. In dependence on the verbs anogaf, / exhort and cynghoraf, / advise the verb-noun is introduced by the preposition i, to: e,g, cynghoraf ef i ddyfod, I advise him to come. 3. In some cases a verb of Will or Desire may take after it a Noun Phrase introduced by the fixed preposition ar, on. The verbs which may take this construction are, crefaf, I beg\ deisyfaf, / entreaty dymunaf, / desire \ gorchymynaf, / command] and gweddiaf, I pray: e.g. dymunaf ar i'r dyn dewi, I desire the man to be silent. With the use of these Noun Phrases of Statement and Will-Speech compare the French use of the infinitive (without change of Subject) in place of a Clause after croire, prtendre, vouloir, ordonner: e.g. je crois Tavoir vu, I believe that I saw him; je lui ordonne de venir, / order him to come, . A Noun Phrase, formed with peidio, ceasing (see Accidence, § 284.4), or with bod followed by heb with another verb-noun, may be equivalent to a negative clause: e,g. addefodd iddo beidio (a) myned, he admitted that he did not go (lit. that he ceased to go). GyfFesodd ei fod heb ateb, he confessed that he had not answered (lit. that he was without answering), s
(delwedd F7313) (tudalen 130)	130 WELSH SYNTAX 369a List of Verbs taking Dependent Statements and Will-Speech. I. Verbs of * saying ': — addawaf, /promise addefaf, / admit awgrymaf, I suggest bygythiaf, I threaten 2. Verbs of * thinking ': — codS, } *''«" dychymygaf,/ imagine dyfalaf, I guess 3. Verbs of * perceiving '; — caf, /find canfyddaf, I perceive clywaf, I hear 4. Verbs of * knowing ': — cymeraf amaf, /pretend dywedaf, gwadaf, tyngaf, gobeithiaf, disgwyliaf, meddyliaf, tybiaf, /say /deny / sxvear /hope / expect /think /suppose darganfyddaf, . / discover gwelaf, /see anghofiaf, / forget gwn, /know cofiaf / remember 5. Verbs of * showing ': — amlygaf, / rexeal egluraf, / shotu cyhoeddaf, /announce profaf, /prove danghosaf, /show 6. Verbs of * rejoicing,* ' griev ing * and * wondering ': — llawenychaf, / rejoice rhyfeddaf, / wonder gofidiaf, /grieve synnaf, / marvel (N.B. — These verbs of * rejoicing/ * grieving,* and 'wondering* are rarely followed by an affirmative clause of normal order.) 7. Verb of * fearing *: — ofnaf, /fear, 8. Certain impersonal expressions denoting * it happens,' * it is possible,* * it is right,* etc.: — dichon,* // is possible hwyrach. ► perhaps 4 mae yn digwy dd, // happais ond odid. rhaid, it must needs be diammeu. undoubtedly efallai, ") feallai, J i>erchiince gwlr, diau. ' {it is) true {it is) certain 9. Veibs of Effort: — gofalaf. T take care paraf. /cause gwelaf. / see to it sicrhaf, /make certain gwnaf. / bring it about 1 * dichon is also not unfrequently used in a personal construction, when it means ra/i, is able. See Accidence, § 277, 3.
(delwedd F7314) (tudalen 131)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION I3I 10. Verbs of Will or Desire: — dymunaf, I wish e wy II ysiaf, / desire gore li y m y n af, / command gweddi'af, I pray anogaf, / exiiort bwr i ad a f, / intend crefaf, / be cynghoraf, / advise deisyfaf, I entreat Note carefully that after verbs of Effort, Will or Desire the dependent clause or clause-equivalent expresses that something shall be or should be (not that something w, was or will be): e,g, gofahvn y bydd rhywun yno, we shall take care that someone shall be there. bwriadwn iddo fyned, I intended that he should go. Sequence of Tenses in Dependent Statements and Will-Speech. 369b In dependence on a tense of past time a primary tense [i.e. a Present or Future or Perfect or Future Perfect is generally chansed into the corresponding secondary tense, viz.: — a Present into a Past Imperfect Future Secondary Future Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect Secondary Fut. Perf. e.g. dywed mai John yw y cryfaf, he says that John is the strongest, dywedodd mai John oedd y cryfaf, lu said that John was the strongest, dywed mai John fydd y cryfaf, he says that John will be the strongest, dywedodd mai John fyddai y cryfaf, he said that John would be the strongest, dywed mai John sydd wedi gweithio, l}e says it is John that has worked, dywedodd mai John oedd wedi gweithio, he said it was John that had worked, dywed mai John fydd wedi gweithio, he says it will be John that will have worked, dywedodd mai John fyddai wedi gweithio, he said it would be John that would have worked. The secondary tenses (Past Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist) remain unchanged
(delwedd F7315) (tudalen 132)	132 WELSH SYNTAX 370a Dependent Questions. I. Dependent Questions are introduced either {a) by interrogative particles (see Accidence, §§ 283, 285): a, in affirmative questions of normal order; ai, in negative questions of normal order, and in affirmative and negative questions of inverted order. pa un .}• ai, whether or, e.g, gofynaf a y w John yno, / ask whether John is there. gofynais ai John oedd yno, / asked whether it was John that was there, gofynodd ai ni chafodd John y llyfr, he asked whether John did not receive the book, gofynodd ai nid y llyfr a gafodd John, he asked whether it was not the book that John received, gofynent pa un a fyddai John yno ai peidio, tJi were asking whether John would be there or not, gofynent pa un ai John ynte William oedd yno, they were asking whether it was John or William that was there, Obs. I. For pa un, p'un, and also p*r'un (=pa ryw un) are used, especially in colloquial Welsh. 2. In Dependent Questions of inverted order, the conjunction ynte, or is generally used to introduce the second alternative. or (p) by interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs, such as pwy, pa, pa sawl, pa gynnifer e, gofynais pwy fu yno, / asked who was there, gofynais pwy na fu yno, I asked who was not therf, holent pa fath ddynion oeddym, they enquired what kind of men we were, holais paham nad aethent yno, / enquired why they had not gone there. The mood in (a) and (b) is the indicative. In {a\ the negative, in questions of normal order, is nid (ni), in questions of inverted order, nid, before both vowels and consonants; in (), the negative is nad (na), but nid (ni) is also sometimes used. who pa fath. 7vhat kind whichy what (adj.) pa faint, how much how many pa le (pMe), where » » paham. why
(delwedd F7316) (tudalen 133)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 1 33 Deliberative Dependent duestions. 370b Deliberative Dependent Questions (i.e. Dependent Questions as to what is or was to be done) are introduced in the same manner as other Dependent Questions: g* gofynais a oeddwn i fyned, I asked whether I was to go, gofynodd ai nid oedd i fyned, he asked whether he 7vas not to go. petruswn pa un a awn yno ai peidio, / hesitated whether J should go there or not. The mood is the Indicative. The negative is nid (ni). Dependent Exclamations. 370c Dependent Exclamations are introduced by exclamatory adverbs such as mor, ho7Vy or without an exclamatory adverb when the Dependent Exclamation begins with an adjective in the comparative of equality: e,g, gwelwch "!?j j [ yw yr adeilad, see how splendid the building is, rhyfeddent J ' j \ oedd y daith, they manelled how tedious the journey was. Sequence of Tenses in Dependent Questions and Exclamations. 370* The same rules of sequence apply to Dependent Questions and Exclamations as to Dependent Statements and Will-Speech e.g, (1) Dependent Questions. gofynaf ai John yw y cr}faf, / ask whether John is tJie strongest, gofynwn ai John oedd y cryfaf, / was asking whether John was the strongest, gofynaf a fyddwch yn ) cyfarfod, / ask whether you will be at the meeting, gofynais a fyddech yn y cyfarfod, I asked whetJur you would be at the meeting. (2) Dependent Exclamations, rhyfedda hardded yw y wlad, he marvels at the beauty of the country (lit. how beautiful the country is), rhyfeddai hardded oedd y wlad, he marvelled at the beauty oj the country (lit. how beautiful the country was).
(delwedd F7317) (tudalen 134)	134 WELSH SYNTAX REPORTED SPEECH. 371 Two methods may be employed in reporting: A. The person reporting may quote words or views in their original iudependent form (Direct; Speech, Oratio Recta): e,g, dywedodd ** nid oes neb yma," he said " there is no one here" B. The person reporting may use the form of a clause or clauses (or clause-equivalents) dependent on a verb of sayings thinking, etc., called the leading verb (Indirect Speech, dratid Obliqua): e,g, dywedodd nad oedd n€b yno, he said that there was //«/ one there, DIRECT SPEECH. Hwn yw yr ail o'r mesurau a ddygwyd yn mlaen i*r dyben o ledu rhan o Ffordd Haiarn Caer a Chaergybi er cyfarfod a'r drafnidiaeth gynnyddol. Ynddo ei hun, y mae yr ymgymmeriad yn un o'r fslth fwyaf dymunol; a phe cerid ef allan, er ystyriaeth briodol i fanteision masnachwyr Gogledd Cymru ac eiddo awdurdodau lleol y rhanbarthau hyny He y mae eangiad y llinell yn yinyraeth a hawliau cyhoeddus, nis gallai neb godi gwrthwynebiad iddo. Y mae yna amryw ddarpariaethau yn eisieu yn y mesur yn ei ffurf wreiddiol, er sicrhau hawliau y ' ffyrdd ac awdurdodau eraill yr effeithir arnynt. Y mae trafodaeth faith wedi cjrmeryd lle rhwng y cyrfF hyn a chwmni y ffordd haiarn; a chanlyniad hyny ydyw fod trefniadau ll€d flfafriol wedi cael eu gwneyd." INDIRECT SPEECH. Dywedodd Mr. Herbert Lewis — mai hwn oedd yr ail oV mesurau a ddygwyd yn mlaen i'r dyben o ledu rhan o ffordd Haiarn Caer a Chaergybi er cyfarfod a'r drafnidiaeth gynnyddol. Ynddo ei hun, yr oedd yr ymgymmeriad yn un o'r filth fwyaf dymunol; a phe cerid ef allan, er ystyriaeth briodol i fanteision masnachwyr Gogledd Cymru ac eiddo awdurdodau lleol y rhanbarthau hyny lle yr oedd eangiad y llinell yn ymyraeth a hawliau cyhoeddus, nis gallai neb godi gwrthwynebiad iddo. Yr oedd yna amryw ddarpariaethau yn eisieu yn y mesur yn ei ffurf wreiddiol, er sicrhau hawliau y ffyrdd, ac awdurdodau eraill yr effeithid arnynt. Yr oedd trafodaeth faith wedi cymeryd lle rhwng y cyrff hyn a chwmni y ffordd haiarn; a chanlyniad hyny ydoedd fod trefniadau ll6d ffafriol wedi cael eu gwneyd." " Y Faner," Aug. 3, 1898.
(delwedd F7318) (tudalen 135)	SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 135 " This is the seco7id of the Bills which have been brought fonvard for the purpose of widening a pari of the Chester and Holyfiead Railway in order to meet t/ie increasing traffic. In itself the iindertakifig is one of the most welco?ne; and if it should be carried out with due regard to t/ie interests of the business men of North Wales and those of the local authorities of those districts wJiere the extension of the line interferes with public claims no one could raise any objection to it. There are several provisions lacking in the Bill in its original fon7i in order to secure the claims of the roads and other aut/writies that are affected. A lengthy correspondence has taken place between these bodies and the railway company and the result is that fairly favourable arrangements have been madeJ* Mr. Herbert Lewis said— M/ that was the second of the Bills IV hie h had been brouiht fonuard for the purpose of widening a part of the Chester and Holyhead Raihvay in order to meet the increasing traffic. In itselj, the undertaking was one of the most welcome; and if it should be carried out with due regard to the interests of tlu business men of North Wales and those of the local authorities of tliose districts where the extension of the line interfered with public claims no one could raise any objection to it. There were several provisions lacking in the Bill in its original form in order to secure the claims of the roads and other authorities that were affected. A lengthy correspondence had taken place between these bodies and the railway company and the result was that fairly favourable arrangetnents had been made. Rules. — i. Simple Sentences and Principal Clauses of Direct Speech become Dependent Noun Clauses or Noun Phrases in Indirect Speech, according to the rules given in §§ 367-370. 2. Noun Phrases in place of Clauses of normal order are generally employed only in proposals and resolutions and in the opening sentences of speeches reported in Indirect Speech. Hence proposals and resolutions generally begin with the word fod (the mutated form of the verb-noun bod). 3. Change from Indirect to Direct Speech and vice versa is not uncommon. 4. As it is often difficult to render verbs in the Imperative PI. 2 into Indirect Speech, owing to the ambiguity of the Past Imperfect Indicative PL 3, the sentence containing the Imperative is not unfrequently allowed to stand in Direct Speech with the word meddai, said he used parenthetically to indicate that the sentence is a quotation.
(delwedd F7319) (tudalen 136)	136 PART II.— MEANINGS OF FORMS. "72 Owing to the loss of the old case-endings and the fusion of the old conjugations of the verb into one, Welsh does not possess a large number of inflected forms like Greek and Latin. In many respects, therefore, the language is in a stage of development similar to that of English or French. 373 There are in Welsh no cases distinguished by difference of case-ending; but the noun, by being placed after another noun, may express many of the meanings of the genitive; or, by being placed after the verb, may have the same force as the accusative of Greek and Latin. A noun depending on another noun. The following are some of the chief meanings of a noun dependent on another noun, like a genitive case in Greek or Latin. 374 I. The dependent noun may denote 'belonging to,' 'connected with ': e.g, palas y brenin, the kins palace ( = Possessive Oenitiye). llais y wlad, i/ie voice of the country, delw Cesar, the image of Ccesar. gwyr Eryri,* the men of Eryri, merched Mon, the maidens of Anglesey, 375 2. The dependent noun may denote what might have been expressed as the Object of a verb (= Objective Genitive): .. llofrudd y brenin, the murderer of the king { he who murdered the king). ysgrifenwr y llyfr, the writer of the book, ' chwiliwr y calonau, the searcher of hearts, Obs. — When the dependent noun denotes the person who acts or feels, it corresponds to what is sometimes called by contrast the Subjective Genitive: e.g, cariad mab, a sorCs affection; trallod y wraig, the wife's distress, * The place to which a person belongs is expressed without a preposition only after plural nouns. 196 MEANINGS OF FORMS
(delwedd F7320) (tudalen 137)	137 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 The dependent noun can express meanings (i) and (2) without a preposition only when the noun upon which it depends is definite in meaning. 3. The dependent noun may be used to define more closely a given occupation: e.g. gof aur, a goldsmith, saer maen, ) . . \ a stone mason, saer cerrig, j 4. When the dependent noun has initial mutation after a feminine noun, its adjectival character is clearly seen; sucli a noun may denote: — {a) age: e,g, geneth deirblwydd, a girl of three {years), \b) material: e,g, ysgubor goed, a wooden barn; ty cerrig (pi. carf eg, stotie), a stone house; wal gerrig, a stone wall, {c) price: e.g. canwyll ddimai, a half-penny candle; llyfr swllt, a/shilling book, id) time: eg. y seren ddydd, the day star) y seren foreu, the morning star. Occasionally, too, tiie dependent noun may be mutated in such expressions as y wal derfyn, the bou7idary wall (Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg). Note. — The initial mutation after a feminine noun in these expressions is probably a survival from Mediaeval Welsh, in which a dependent noun was often mutated after a feminine, but not after a masculine noun. The practice has survived in these uses of the dependent noun owing to their affinity to those of the adjective. REMARKS. 1. After the adjective llawn, fiill what was probably an old Partitive Genitive, has survived in the dependent noun in such expressions as: llawn cysur, full of comfort \ llawn maeth, full of nourishment; also, with the dependent noun placed first, bwyd ddigon, plenty of food, 2. After uwch, higher Is, lower (now generally, classed with prepositions the dependent noun probably corresponded origmally to the Genitive of Comparison of Greek and the Ablative of Comparison of Latin (Gk. Gram., § 411, Lat. Gram. § 359, 2. Obs. i): ' e.g. uwch y nefoedd, above the heavetts, lit. higher than the heavens; ychydig Is angylion, a little lower than angels (E. Prys). 3. In such expressions as rhai gwyr, some mm; y fath ddyn, such a man; rhyw fachgen, some boy; dim lle, no place; peth rheswm, some reason; the words gwyr, dyn, bachyen, lle and rheswm were originally in the genitive case depending on rhai (see Accidence, § 154), rhyw, dim and peih respectively. See Accidence, § 166.
(delwedd F7321) (tudalen 138)	138 WELSH SYNTAX 383 4. In the ibllowintr expressions the dependent noun is placed first: daear iawr (=llavvr daear), the plain of earth, l)oreu wa\vr('=gu'awr borcu), the morning dawn, gwynel) pryd f=pryd gwynel)), the form of the f cue* angeu ices (=!oes angeu), the agony of death, Seion sail f =sail Seion), the foundation of Zion. Caersaiem byrih (=pyrth Caersalem), the qates of femsaiem. Salem dir (=tir Salem), the land of Salem, Eden ardd (=gardd Eden), the garden of EdeUi bwyd ddigon (=digon o fwyd), plenty of food, merched rai (=rhai merched), some women. dynion lawer (=llawer o ddynion), many men, (For the use of the prepositions i and o see 389-404.) A noun depending on a verb. 384 I. A noun placed after a transitive verb may be its Object: eg, gorchfygodd y gelyn, he conquered the enemy, 385 2. A noun placed after a verb may have an adverbial meaning, denoting time (either duration or point of time) or distance: e,g, arhosodd ddiwrnod, he stayed a day. cerddodd filltir, he walked a mile, bydd yno drennydd, he ivill be there the day after to* mon'ow, a edrych blygain bob pen awr | a weloV wawr yn codi, ivho looks at daybreak at every hour to see whether day is dawning, (E. Prys.) 386 Used predicatively with the verb yf, / am a noun may express age, measurement, or price: (a) age: e,g, mae yn ugain (mlwydd) oed, he is twenty years of age, (b) measurement: e.g. mae yn ugain troedfedd o hyd, o l€d, etc., it is twenty feet inJengih, breadth etc, (c) price: e,g. mae y llyfr yn bedair ceiniog a dimai, the book is four-fence halfpenny, REMARKS. 387 such an expression as y mae hi yn drwm ei chlyw, she is hard of hearings where the adjective trwm agrees with clyw, we have probably a fusion of two constructions: (tf) y mae yn drwm ei cblyw, her hearing is hard (lit. heavy); {d) y mae hi yn drom ei chlyw, she is hard as to her hearings clyw in () corresponding to the accusative of nearer definition of Greek Mid X-atin. See Gk, Qram. § 383; Lat, Qram. § 383.
(delwedd F7322) (tudalen 139)	MEANINGS OF FORMS I39 PREPOSITIONS. 388 Owing to the change which Welsh has undergone from being a language with case-endings into one in wliich the relations of words to each other are mainly determined by their order and arrangement, the prepositions have risen into great prominence, as words which serve to express these relations with precision. Some of these prepositions have a more general meaning than others, and are used to enable the nouns which follow them to convey the meaning expressed in inflected languages by the genitive, dative and ablative cases. The two chief prepositions of this type in Welsh are i, to into\ ofrom of. For the verbs which take fixed prepositions see §§ 329, 332. The preposition i, to, into. 389 In addition to the use of the preposition i in its fundamental sense of to into it is employed to enable a noun or pronoun to express what would, as a rule, be expressed in Greek or Latin by the Dative Case. 390 (i) As a fixed preposition after certain verbs, mainly those of ,?-/>7>/(see§332rt). 391 (2) In the case of personal pronouns only, to enable the pronoun to convey a meaning like that of the so-called Ethical Dative, />. to mark a person as interested in, or sympathizing with, what is said, as distinct from the action spoken of: e,g. wrth fyned ymlaen, iti, fe ddaeth pethau yn well, <I5 wc went OHy you see, things got better. 392 (3)* To denote possession. This is the regular method of expressing possession after nouns which are indefinite in meaning: e.g. llyfr iV bachgen yw hwn, this is a book belonging to the boy. mae y gwr yn gyfaill imi, the man is a friend of mine. yn un pen i*r dref, at one end of the town. 393 (4)* To mark the doer of the action denoted by a verb-noun: e.g. wedi i'r gwr fyned, after the man had go?ie. 394 , (5)* Occasionally after ami, ambell and llawer: t e.g. ami i ddyn, many a man; llawer i greadur, many a creature. 395 (6) Before the verb-noun, to denote destination or purpose: e.g. amser i hau, time for solving. aeth yno i weithio, he went there to 7vork, i.e. for the purpose of working. (For the limitations to the use i before the verb-noun in Welsh, see Cautions, §§ 330, 333). * In (3)1 (4)» and ($) i probably stands for di, from. See § 397. f Now generally omitted after these words by good writers,
(delwedd F7323) (tudalen 140)	140 ■ WELSH SYNTAX Compound prepositional expressions introduced by i, io into. :]9Q i erbyn, against (used only with possessive adjectives): i,g. rhuthrasant i'w herbyn, t/tey rushed against them. i blith, i fysg, into the midst (of) — used only with plural nouns and plural possessive adjectives: e,g, dychwelodd i blith ei bobl, he returned into the midst of his people, aeth i fysg y defaid, he went into the midst of the sheep. i ganol, into the midst {of ) — used with singular or plural: eg, i ganol yr afon, into the midst of the river, i ganol y milwyr, into the midst of the soldiers. Note. — i bllth generally implies closer proximity than i fysg. Remarks. OQM I. The preposition t stands for an older di, which, at one period in the history of the language, meant both to and from, Di meaning to is frequently found in the Book of Llandaf: e.. dir pant to tht valley. In the sense of rom di still survives in the double preposition oddi (=o+ddi), combined with ar, on as in oddiar (o+ddi + ar), from on \ or with tan, under in odditan (■«o+ddi + tan),/r<?/// under \ ox \\\\\i wrth, dy,near, inoddiwrth(=o+ ddi + wrth), /rtf/// near. In Mediaeval Welsh, through the loss of initial d di, from, had become y (=i), identical in form with the preposition y (-=1), to, and still survived in the sense oi from in such expressions as y gan, from associaiion with; y dan, frovt under; y ar, from on. For the use of i in Uawer i ddyn, etc., compare the partitive use of the French de. See Fr. Gram. P.G.S. § 397, 398. 2. In Mediaeval Welsh the preposition i, to, into, was sometimes used where the preposition at, to, toavards, would now be employed: e,g, a pheri yr kigyd . . . dyuot idi a tharaw bonclust amet beunyd, and ordered the butcher . , , to go to her and strike her a blow on the ear daily, (Mabinogi of Bran wen, Rhys and Evans, p. 34, 1. 9. 10). Also, not infrequently, in the sense of yn, in. 398 The Preposition o, from; with pronominal suffixes ohon-. * 9 In addition to its regular meaning from from within the preposition o is mainly employed to enable a noun or pronoun to express what would, as a rule, be expressied in Greek or Latin by the Genitive Case: (i) To introduce a noun of closer definition: e,g. gwr o saer, a carpenter: lit. a man {consisting) oj a carpenter, gwr o athrylith a man of genius, Sais o genedl, an Englishman by race, cloff o'i ddeudroed, lame in both feet.
(delwedd F7324) (tudalen 141)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 141 399 400 402 403 (2) Conversely, to introduce the more general of the two nouns thus brought together: e.g. cawr o ddyn, a giant of a man, truan o ddyn, a ivretch of a man, cywilydd o be h, « shameful thing \ \\\,. a shame of a thing. Cf. Gk. /x€ya xPVM-° (ru6, a monster of a boar. (3) To express a meaning correspondhig to the Partitive Genitive of Greek or Latin: {a) After interrogative pronouns and superlative adjectives: e.g. pwy ohonoch? who of you? y talaf o'r bechgyn, the tallest of the boys, {p) After the following words denoting quantity: cymmaint, as much cynnifer, as many chwaneg (ychwaneg), more Uawer,* lliaws, mwy, nemmawr, pa faint, peth, rhagor, ychydig, muchy many a number more but little ho2v much some more a little digon, sufficient dim, something gormod, too much hyn, this much hynny, that much Similarly after numerals; e.g. ugain o ddynion, twenty men. 401 ' (4) After certain verbs (see § 332) and the following adjectives: amddifad (o) destitute {of) llawn (o) ///// {of) annhebyg (o) unlikely (to) balch (o) proud (of) cyfrannog (o) sharing (in) euog (o) guilty {of) hoff (o) fond {of) (5) With an adjective, after one rhyfeddol, wondetful\ nodedig, remarkable \ dychrynllyd, terrible: e.g. ty hynod o gysunis, a remarkably comfortable house, yr oedd yn ddychrynllyd o oer, // tvas terribly cold. (6) In such expressions as o fachgen, for a boy etc., used* to qualify statements of praise t e.g. siaradai Saesneg yn dda iawn o Gymro, he spoke English very well for a Welshman, o fachgen yr oedd ei waith yn rhagorol,r a boy his work was excellent, • Also in Elis Wyn, y Bardd Cwsg, before singular nouns after myrdd and aneirif in the sense of an indenitc amount. This use b a survival from Mediaeval Welsh, prin (o) s/wrt {of) rhwy m (o) bound to sicr (o) sure {to) tebyg (o) likely {to) teilwng (o) worthy {of) of the adjectives hynod,
(delwedd F7325) (tudalen 142)	142 WELSH SYNTAX CompoTiiid prepositional expressions introdnced by o, from, y oddiallan i, outside: e,j. oddiallan fr ty, outside the house, oddiar ( = o-f ddi + ar),//?;;/ off: e.g. oddiar y Uawr, from off the floor. o dan, odditan ( = o -H ddi + tan), beneath under: e.g. o dan ugain, under twenty] odditan y ddaer, beneath the eartfi, oddiwrth ( = o + ddi + wrth),/r<7;//, from near opposed to at, to7vards: e,g, ewch oddiwrth y ceffyl, go atvay from the horse: derbyniodd lythyr oddiwrth y brenin, he recetied a Utter from the king, o achos I o blegid > on account {of): e.g, o achos y gwres, on account o herwydd ) of the heat; oblegid y draffei th, on account of the trouble \ oherwydd yr hin, on account of the weather. o blaid, in favour of: e.g, o blaid y llywodraeth, in favour of the Government, o fewn, oddifewn i, within . e.g, o fewn y cylch, within the circle \ o fewn ychydig, within a little \ oddifewn i'r ty, , within the house, o fesur, by (used distributively): e.g, o fesur y dwsin, by the dozen, o flaen, before (mostly of place): e.g, o flaen yr orsedd, before the throne; o flaen yr amser, before the time, o gylch ° dd "t r '*"» "' • O P • 'S' o gych y lle, " I around the place; o atngylch y ddinas, around ogwmpasy /Af city; oddeutu 'r drws, about t/ie door\ o gwmpas y ty, around the house. Of time: (oddeutu, o gylch, and o gwmpas only): e,g, bu yno oddeutu wythnos, he was there about a week \ o gwmpas dwyawr, about two hours; o gylch tridiau, about three days, o 61, behind used only with possessive adjectives: e.g, o'm hoi, behind me. o izxijfor the matter (of), as for: e.g, o ran hynny, for the matter of that.
(delwedd F7326) (tudalen 143)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 43 Other Prepositions. 405 ag (a), wiih mostly used to express the instrument: e,g. torri a chyilell, to citt with a knife. Other meanings; aeth ymaiih a'r fwyall, he went away with the axe; mae wedi darfod a mi, he has done with me] crefodd arnaf a dagrau, he begged of me with tears. 406 am, around for with pronominal suffixes amdan-: Of place: am ei arddwrn, around his wrist \ am y pared, on the other side of the ivaii. Of time: am yn \C\Xyfor a longtime \ am oriau,y&r hours; am dros flwyddyn, for over a year. Other meanings: ni soniodd air am hynny, he did not say a word about that; am y tro, for the time; am y cyntaf, for the first; am reswm neillduol, for a certain reason \ am ei iywydfor his life\ garw am arian, eager for money; am geiniog,r a penny \ anfon am ddwfr, to send for water \ nid awn yno am lawer, / should not go therefor anything; am y testyn, mae yn ddigon hawdd, as for the subject it is easy enough, amdan ( = am + dan), about is mainly used with nouns in the expressions gwisgo amdan, to dress; tynu amdan, to undress, am ben, upon at: eg, chwerthin. am ben, to laugh at, 407 ar, on, with pronominal suffixes am-: Of place: ar y ffordd, on the road] ar farch, on horseback; ar dir a mor, on land and sea. Of time: ar y foment, at the moment) ar unwaith, at once; ar ddwywaith, in two attempts. Other meanings: ar frys, quickly; ar yr ammod, on condition; ar y tir, on the ground {that); ar sail y dystiolaeth, on the basis of the evidence; ar ei oreu, with all his might) ar gyfartaledd, on an average) ar log, at . interest; ar werth, on sale; ar osod, to let ) ar neges, on an errand; ar gynghor, by advice ) ar gam, wrongly; ar yr iawn, in the right) arddechreu, at the beginning) ar ddiwedd, ar derfyn, at the end (of); ar gyfyng gynghor, in perplexity ) ar y plwyf, on tlu parish ) mae arno arian, he owes money. Occasionally after math, kind: e,g, math ar liw, a kind of colour.
(delwedd F7327) (tudalen 144)	144 WELSH SYNTAX :07b In certain compound prepositional expressions: — ar ben, upon: Of place: ar ben y ty, on top of the house. Of time: ar ben pob awr, at the end of every hour. Other meanings: ac ar ben y cwbl, dechreuodd wlawio, and, on top of it all, it began to rain; mae ar ben ei dtiigon, he has ample means lit. he is at the end of his sufficiency, ar draws, across: Of place: ar draws y fford, across the road\ ar draws y He, all over the place. Other meanings: rhedodd y cerbyd ar ei draws, the car ran over him \ peidiwch a siarad ar draws y dyn, do not interrupt the man, ar gyfer, opposite: Of place: ar gyfer y ty, opposite the house. Of time: ar gyfer yr adeg, for {—to meet) the occasion) ar gyfer y gauaf, for the winter, ar gyfyl, near\ mainly used in negative sentences: Of place: ni ddaeth ar gyfyl y He, he did not come near the place, ar hyd, o/ver: Of place; ar hyd y ddinas, over the city. Of time: ar hyd y nos, all night long, ar ol, after: Of place: aeth ar 51 ei feistr, he went after his master. Of time: ar ol yr amser, after the time. Other meanings: eich gardd chwi y w y fwyaf ar 61 un John, your garden is the largest after John* s, ar warthaf, down upon: e,g. ar warthaf y gelyn, upon the enemy, at, to, towards (opposed to oddiytxih from by): 408 Of place: af at y ty, I shall go to the house] y nesaf at yr heol, the next to the street. Of time: at y gauaf, towards winter; at y nos, towards night 'y at yr adeg, to the right time. Other meanings; aeth at ei waith, he went to his work; mae at ei ddewis, at ei ryddid, he is free to choose; at eich gwasanaeth, a/7//r jtfA-z/Vi?; chwaeth at, taste for \ at ein chwaeth, to our taste \ at bwy yr ydych yn cyfeirio? to whom do you refer} anfonaf lythyr atoch, / shall send you a letter] at yr anwyd, y&r a cold ] cymeraf hynny at fy ystyriaeth, / shall take that into consideration.
(delwedd F7328) (tudalen 145)	MEANINGS OF FORMS I45 409 cyn, before-. — Of time: cyn dydd, before daybreak) cyn cinio, before dinner, 410 dan (tan), under until: Of place: dan y to, under the roof] dan y ddaear, under the earth. Of time: dan y nos, until night] dan yfory, /////// tomorrow. Other meanings: dan gerydd, under a rebuke] dan warth, /;/ disgrace ] dan glefyd, in sickness ] mae dan anwyd, he is suffering from a cold lit. he is under a cold; dan orfodaeth, under compulsion ] dan amod, on condition; dan rwymedigaeth, under an obligation; dan esgus, with the excuse. (For dan in amdan, o dan and odditan see 406, 404). 411 dros (tros), over: Of place: gwaeddodd dros y lle, he shouted all over th place; dros y ffordd, over the tvay. Of time: dros y dmrnod for the day; dros y tro, for once. Other meanings: dros fesur, beyond measure; dros gant, over a hundred] ymladdant dros eu gwlad, dros ryddid, they fight for their country for freedom, drwy (trwy), through: 412 Of place: drwy Ffrainc, through France] drwy y ty, through the house. Of time: drwy'r flwyddyn, throughout the year, efo, with sometimes used for gyda. See gyda. This preposition, 413 regularly used in the spoken Welsh of N. Wales to express with was not originally a preposition but a personal pronoun S. 3, and has developed into a pre position through a mistake. Its original use was in such expressions as fo a mi, he and /, or he with me which became contracted into fo mi, and fo (also pronounced hefo) was taken to mean with and used accordingly. cr, since: — Of time: er y boreu, since the morning] er yn blentyn, 414 since childhood, ers (=er ys), since*: — Of time: er ys oriau,r hours \ er ys talm, since long ago, er, in spite (of): — Adversative: er hynny, in spite of that; er ci 415 gystudd, in spite of his illness, *ers, er ys, is employed where since implies continuance: ys is probably the old form S. 3. Pres. Indie, of wyf, meaning it is (Irish * is *): hence er ys oriau meant originally since it is hours i.e. since hours have elapsed, F
(delwedd F7329) (tudalen 146)	146 WELSH SYNTAX er gwaeihaf, lit. in spiU of t/u worst', er gwaethaf y tywydd, />/ spiU of the weather. 416 er, for the sake of: er sicrvvydd, for the sake of certainty; er xi\BJ\i\s, for the sake of an advaritae, er mwyn, for the sake {of): er mwyn i2LVie\s<rc\ for the sake of peace, 417 er,y2?r, to (miplyinfi; result): bu y p$th er clod, er cysur iddo, the thing 7C'as to his credit to his comfort \ er ei syndocl» to his surprise, 418 erbyn, by: — Of time: erbyn tri o'r gloch, by three o'clock, 419 gan, with by: Of place * (rare in Modern Literary Welsh): fel miaren gan lawr, tike a briar along the ground (Elis Wyn); a'u trwynau gan lawr, with their noses on the ground (Elis Wyn). Of time (obsolete): gan wawr, with the dawn (Gododin) To denote the agent, in passive constructions: gwelwyd ef gan fachgen, he was seen by a boy. With the meaning /rw, where gan stands for*thc older y gan, from association with: — e.g, cafodd gan y dyn fyned, he got the man to go lit. he got from the man a going \ dysgodd gan ei athraw, he learnt from his master] cafodd lyfr gan ei dad, he got a book from his father, PHRASES: gan mwyaf, for the most part ] gan hynny, therefore; gan fyned, going, (see 547, 556), da gennjrf gly wed, / am glad to hear, gan is largely employed in the expression mae gan, lit there is withy denoting possession: e.g, mae gan y dyn arian, the man has money. Note. — The use of gan by some writers in such expressions as jx apostol gan Bedr, the apostle Peter is by no means elegant and should be avoided. 420 g6r» close by: Of place: ger y llif, near the flood \ ger y lan, near the fire, ger Haw, close by lit. near the hand ipf): Of place: ger Haw y dnvs, near the door, ger bron, before, lit. before the breast (of): Of place: ger bron y brenin, before the king, 421 gerfydd, by, in such expressions as dal gerfydd ei draed, to hold by his feet. * In the Dinietian dialect of S. Wales this use of gan is not uncommon.
(delwedd F7330) (tudalen 147)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 47 422 gydag (gyda), with (in N. Wales, the correspjnding prep, efo is generally employed): Of place: gyda glan yr afon, along the bank of the river. Of time: gyda'r wawr, ivith the dawn-, gyda'r nos, at nightfall. Other meanings: aetli gydag ef, he went with (i.e. accompanied by) him] gyila'ch cennad, by your leave] •gyda Haw, by the 7vay \ gyda hynny, /// addition to that) gyda brys, with speed] gyda'r cyntaf, with t he first] gyda bloedd, with a shout] gyda gwen, with a smile] gyda bendith, with a blessing; gyda phob parch, with all respect; gyda thrafferth, ivith difficulty, 423 gogyfer ag (a), opposite to: Of place: gogyfer a*r drws, opposite the door, gyferbyn ag (a), opposite to: Of place: gyferbyn a'r llys, opposite the court, gyfeiryd ag (a), opposite to (rare): Of place: gyfeiryd a hyn, yr oedd seler fawr, opposite to this there was a large cellar, Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg. 424 heb, ivithout (Med. Welsh, past): — hcb lyfr, without a book \ heb achos, without a cause, heb law, besides: — heb law hynny, besides that ] heb law fi,* besides myself, heb waethaf (i), in spite (rare): heb waethaf Holland, /// spite of Holland, Elis Wyn. 425 heibio (i), past: — heibio V ty, past the house; heibio i mi, past me 426 liyd, along until: Of place: daeth adref hyd y ffordd, he came home along the road. In this sense ar hyd (see § 407*) is mostly used. Of time: hyd drannoeth, until the following day \ hyd angeu, //// death, hyd at, as far as: hyd at y ty, as far as the house: hyd at y divvedd, as far as the end, hyd i, as far aSy implying * entrance into ': hyd I'r ddinas, as far as the city, * Note that heb law does not require the preposition i, to after it before prououns.
(delwedd F7331) (tudalen 148)	I 148 WELSH SYNTAX 427 is, bel(nVy beneath: Of place: Is jr nefoedd, beneath the heavens \ is y don, beneath the wave, is law, beneath: Of place: is law y t?, belo7v the house. Other meanings: mae y gwas is law ei feistr, the servant is below his master \ is law sylw, beneath one's notice, 428 inewn, in: Of place: mewn ystafell, in a room; mcwn cerbyd, in a car. Of time: mewn awr, in an hour; mewn blwyddyn, in a year. Other meanings: mewn ofn, in fear; mewn perygl, in danger \ mewn angen, in need. See §§ 437, 438. 429 rhag, froniy implying the avoidance of some danger or discomfort: eg, cadw rhag y tan, to keep from the fire; achub rhag angeu, to save from death. Phrase: rhag Vid.'Nyforthivith \ rhag oin from fear, 430 rhwng, between: Of place: rhwng Rhyl a Bangor, between Rhyl and Bangor, Of time: rhwng nos a boreu, between niglit and morning. Other meanings: rhanasant yr arian rhyngddynt, they divided the money between them; rhyngom, ni a wnawn yn rhagorol, betioeen us, we shall do excellently \ rhyngddynt hwy 2lX peth, betiveen tlum and the matter, 431 tuag (tua), abotity towards. This preposition is a compound of lu, side, and ag, with: Of place: tua'r ty, about the house \ tua'r difJowards the town. Of time: tua naw o'r gloch, about nine o clock; tua thrl, about three. Other meanings: tua chant, about a hundred) tua phum ceiniog, about fivepence;* tua milldir, about a mile, tuagat, towardy towards: daeth tuagatom, he came towards US] rhoisant rywbeth tuagat y treuliau, they gave something towards the expenses, 432 uwch, above: uwch y don, above the wave; uwch y byd, above the world, goruwch, above, is more commonly used to express these meanings than the simple uwch. uwch ben, above: uwch ben y ty, above the house. uwch law, above: uwch aw y cyfan, above alL
(delwedd F7332) (tudalen 149)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 49 433 wedi, after: Of time: wedi nos, after yiightfall; wedi 'r frwydr, after the battle. Of succession: y talaf wedi John, the tallest after John. 434 wvth, •, to: Of place: safai wrth y ty, he stood by the house. After verbs of * binding ': cadwyno wrth y niur, to chain to the wall. Similarly — rhwym wrth y mur, bound to the wall. After verbs of speaking; llefaru wrth y dorf, to speak to the multitude. Other meanings: cerdded wrth ei bwysau, to ivalk at • his leisure; rhodio wrth ei ffon, to walk by the help of his stick; gweithio wrth reol, to work by rule \ rhoddi wrth fesur, to give by measure \ gwerthu wrth y pwys, to sell by the pound \ wrth raid, if need be\ wrth ei swydd, in virtue of his office; wrthyf ft a'm bath, compared with vie and my sort, 435 yn, in: Of place: yn y wl5d, in the country; yng nghysgod craig, in the shelter of a rock; ym mhob man, in every place \ ym mha le, /// what place; yn ei holl ardal, in his whole district. Of time: yn y flwyddyn, /;/ the year \ ym mis Chwefror, in February, Other meanings: yn angeu, in death; yn Gymraeg, in Welsh \ ym mhawb, in every one, yn IS the first element of the following compound prepositional 433 expressions: yn erbyn, against: yn erbyn y gelyn, against the enemy, •yng ngwydd, in the presence {of): yng ngwydd tystion, in the presence of mtnesses, yng nghylch, about: yng nghylch ugain, about twenty; ypg righylch tridiau, about three days, ym mhen, at the end (of): ym mhen pythefnos, at the end of a fortnight \ ym mhen y ffordd, at the end of the road, Le. this end hence this expression generally means at the beginning of the road, yng nghanol j /// the midst of among: yng nghanol yr afon, in the ym mhlith > midst of the river \ ym mhlith y tlodion, among ym mysg ) the poor \ ymysg y Saeson, among the English, ym mhlith and ym mysg are used only with plural nouns or plural possessive adjectives, yn 61, after (rare in Modern Welsh):— yn 51 hynny, after that. 447
(delwedd F7333) (tudalen 150)	I50 HELSH SYNTAX Distinctions between yn and mewn. 437 y» iic r. dans, is generally employed before words defined by means of the definite article or otherwise: mewn, like Fr, /r, is generally employed before words not so defined: g.i. yn y ty, /// i/ie hoitse; mewn ty, /// a house. 438 Proper names of places, ami expressions such as angeii, deaths iragwyddoldeb, cicr7iity\ as well as pob, tiery pawb, every one, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, 7('/io, which (relative), pwy, tvhol, pa, what? holl, whole, and all pronominal suffixes take yn: e,g, ynddynt, /// them; yn yr holl wlad, in the whole country. 439 Note. — In the expressions yn tan, in (or into) the fire yn t, in the house the article is omitted. Note also the initial mutation in the expression yn Gymraeg (not yng Nghymraeg), in Welsh, Distinctions between prepositions meaning /r(7m. 440 > from, means from within: e,g, oV ty, from (i.e. from within) the house, as opposed to i, into, 441 oddiwrth, from near, means from a position of close proximity to: e,g, oddiwrth y ty, from (i.e. from the outside of) t/te house, as opposed to at, toivards. Verbs of * separating ' mostly take oddiwrth. 442 rhsig, from before, implies the avoidance of some danger or discomfort: e.g. cadw rhag y gwr€s, to keep from the heat, 443 gn, from association iviih, after verbs of * receiving' etc. implies immediate and direct transmission: e,g, caf lyfr gan fy athraw, / shall get a book from my teacher, 444 oddiwrth, from near, after verbs of * receiving ' etc generally calls attention to the transmission of the object in question through intermediaries: e.g. caf lyfr oddiwrth (y athraw, I shall get a book from my teacher (i.e. transmitted through the agency of some other person). Remarks. The following old prepositional forms deserve notice: 445 (i) behet, bet, up to, found in the Book of LlandafT, and even, in Wiliam. Lleyn in the mutated form fed. 446 (2) cant, withf of which ean (for gant) is the mutated form, can still sarvives as a prefix in cantu, he beheld, and canmolaf, I praise. The existence of this form explains the initial mutation in such expressions as a chanddo, a9ui with him. Cant is probably cognate with Gk. icard, (3) cyd, with, of which gyd in gyda is the mutated form. This preposition . in the forms cyf-, cy-, cyd-, cys- is a common prefix, having the force of the Gk. <nJi», with, Lat. cum, con-, with, 448 (4) Z9 ( guo-, under, = Gaulish vo-, Irish fo, Gk. h-rh *), is now used as a prefix and as an adverb, to express rather: e,g, go-drwm, rather heavy; go gynes, rather warm. It Is also found as a prefix in many nouns and verbs.
(delwedd F7334) (tudalen 151)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 15I 449 (5) gof (for guor-, over = Gaulish vor-, ver-, Irish for, Gk. uWp*), is now used as a preHx to express exccedin'ly: e.. gorddwfn, exceedingly deep, gor is found as a prefix in many Welsh words. 450 (6) han, />•»/;/, is the first element in the word han-fod, essence. In the form hon it is the second element in the forms ohonof, etc., from me, etc. 451 (7) Py» ('O. Irish CO. ttp to) occurs in the expression o ben Invy gilydd, for o ben by 'i gilydd, from one end to the other lit. frotn one end to its fellow, 452 () » <yoer occurs in the expression ben dra-mwnwgl, head over heels; lit. head over neck, tra is now used as a prefix and as an adverb meaning exceedingly, SUPPLEMENT TO PREPOSITIONS. Expressions of Place. 453 yr oeddwn yn Llundain, / was in London, „ „ „ y ty „ „ the house, euthiim o Lundain, I went from London, o'r ty „ „ the house. 454 455 456 „ oddiwrthyty „ „ „ „ „ i Lundain, „ to London, i*r ty „ into the house, at y ty „ towards the house. Rule: — " Place where," '* place whence," and " place whither" are expressed as in English by using prepositions. Note: — gartref, home (mutated form of cariref f) is used without a preposition. Expressions of Space, cerddodd bymtheng miildir, he walked fifteen miles, mae Bangor driugain miildir o Gaerlleon, Bangor is sixty miles from Chester, Rule: — Distance is expressed by a noun without a preposition with verbs of motion and of rest. Note. — "Mow long," "how high," "how broad" are expressed by using the nouns hyd, lengthy uchder,- height lled, breadth respectively, preceded by the preposition 0, from of', e,g, mae y ffordd yn ddeng miildir o hyd, the road is ten miles * Original p of Indo-European has disappeared in the Celtic languages. f cariref, home is probably from car, relative and tref, settlement homestead, and would thus mean originally the common settlement of relatives under th Old Welsh System of land tenure.
(delwedd F7335) (tudalen 152)	152 WELSH SYNTAX Expressions of Time. TIME WHEN. 457 *) yn Rhagfyr y cychwynodd, /*/ 7vas in Decetnder that he started. (b) fe'm ganwyd ar y pummed o Awst yn y flwyddyn i8 — , / was born on the th of August in the year i8 — . {c) bydd y cyfarfod yn dechreu am saith o*r gloch, the meeting will begin at seven o clock, {ft) bu yma boreu heddyw, he was here this morning. daw adref y flwyddyn nesaf, he will come home next year, aeth yno y Nadolig, he went there at Christmas. Rule: — " Time when '* is expressed by using the preposition yn, in, to mark the year or the month; ar, on, to mark the day; amr, to mark the hour. In other cases the noun is employed either without a preposition or with the preposition yn, in. TIME HOW LONG. 458 arhosodd yn Llundain ddyddiau lawer (or am ddyddiau lawer), he stayed in London many days. bu yno bum wythnos (or am bum wythnos), she was there for five weeks. Rule:— " Time how long " is expressed either by using a noun preceded by the preposition am, for, or without a preposition. 459 Note: — " How old " is expressed by a Predicate-noun followed immediately by the noun oed, age (possibly with the omission of Offrom, of before oed): e.g. mae y plentyn yn bum mlwydd oed, the child is five years of age. (Note that blwydd is the form employed here). TIME WITHIN WHICH. ychydig ddyddiau cyn y frwydr, a few days before the battle. rhy w dridiau wedi (or ar 61) y Pasg, soffie three years after Easter. ddeng mlynedd (or ym mhen deng mlynedd) wedi hynny, tefi years after, ychydig yn gynt, a little sooner. gryn amser ar ol hynny, a considerable time after that. 460 Rule: — " Time how long before or after " is generally expressed by means of a noun without a preposition. (For a list of adverbs of time see § 598.)
(delwedd F7336) (tudalen 153)	MEANINGS OF FORMS I53 MEANINGS OF THE VOICES. 461 Owing to the peculiar history of the Passive Voice in Welsh (see Accidence, § 178), it is not always easy to say, in sentences with normal order, whether or not the verb has completely passed over into the Passive Voice; in other words, whether or not the sense of the original construction still survives in our grammatical consciousness. . In sentences of inverted order, however, if the Subject precedes the verb, the verb then seems to be viewed as distinctly passive: eg. gwelwyd dyn, a man was seen (originally, there was seeing as to a man), dyn a welwyd, * a man was seen.' 462 The Active voice often has an intransitive meaning, even in the case of verbs which are capable of taking an Object: e.g, cyfodaf, I rise as well as I raise. dysgaf, I learn, „ „ I teach. The Substitute for a Middle Voice. 463 In the case of many verbs a reflexive form, equivalent in meaning to the * Middle Voice' of Greek, can be made by prefixing the preposition ym* (another form of am, around): eg. golchaf, I wash; ym-olchaf, I wash myself. 464 Sometimes, verbs of this formation are not used in a direct reflexive sense, but, by means of the prefix in question, suggest a relation of the action to its agent, as involving his interest, etc.: e.g, gwelaf, I see; ymwelaf, I visit {—I see for myself), 5 In the case of some verbs, ym appears to have a reciprocal force: e.g. ymladdwn, we fight (lit. jve strike t one another), [Cf. French se battre, to fight. "] pan el lladron i ymgyhuddo, y caifl* cywiriaid eu da, when thieves proceed to accuse one another, honest men come by their own. Welsh Proverb. 466 Note: — ym and am (Irish imm), are cognate with Latin ambi-, and Greek d/A0/, around [for original ambhi-]. * The corresponding Irish preposition imm is also similarly used. . f lladdaf, now =■ / kill, meant originally / strike.
(delwedd F7337) (tudalen 154)	154 WELSH SYNTAX MEANINGS OF THE TENSES, 467 1 Some of the Welsh tense-forms have pairs of meanings as follows: dysgaf, / iearn (Present), and / shall learn (Future); dysgwn, / was learning (Past Imperfect), and / should learn (Secondary Future) j dysgaswn, / had learnt (Pluperfect), and / should have learnt (Secondary FuT. Perf.); dysgais, I learnt {koK\si:\ and I have learnt (Perfect). 468 From these forms it will be seen that the peculiarity whereby the Present tense-form has both a present and a future meaning is not confined to this tense-form alone, but shows itself also in the case of the tense-forms of the Past Imperfect and the Pluperfect. I 469 ' Vt Imperfect, when used as a Secondary Future, corresponds in meaning to the Secondary Future of French (the so-called ' Conditionnel Present '), while the Pluperfect, when used as a Secondary Future Perfect, corresponds to the Secondary Future Perfect of French (the so-called * Conditionnel Pass '). Welsh differs from French in having, in nearly all verbs, only one form for the Present and the Future; only one form for the Past Imperfect and the Secondary Future; and only one for the Pluperfect and the Secondary Future Perfect. 470 In the case of wyf, / am the pairs of tense-forms are as follows: byddaf, I am wont to be (Pres. Habitual), and I shall be (Fut.); byddwn, I was wont to be (Past Imperf. Habit.), and I should be (Sec. Fut.); buaswn, / had been (Pluperfect), and / should have been (Sec Fut. Perf.); I bum, 7 was (Aorist), and I have been (Perfect). 471 N.B. — Note that the tense- forms which have these pairs of meanings are all derived from the root bheu [Lat. fu-1, / have been j Gk. ipv-vai, to g[r0w\.
(delwedd F7338) (tudalen 155)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 55 Tenses of the Indicative. The Present. 472 The Present (Simple Form) has two chief meanings: — {A) as a true Present: \B) as a Future: e.g. gweiaf, I see or 1 shall see. 473 (/4) As a true Present, the simple form of this tense has two chief uses: (i) In the case of verbs denoting a state, to mark the state as noiv existing: e.g. wyf, / am; gallaf, I can, I am able. 474 So with verbs which denote states of mind rather than actions: e.g. gweiaf, I see; ystyriaf, I consider \ teimlaf, I feel. 475 The corresponding meaning of verbs which denote an action is expressed by the compound form of the Present, which marks the action as now going on: e.g, yr wyf yn ysgrifenu, / am writing (now), lit. / am in writings I am a-wriiing. y mae yn rhedeg, he is running (now), yr wyt yn myned, t/iou art going, thou art a-going, 476 (2) I" the case of verbs denoting an action and those denoting a state, to mark the action or the state, as recurring habitually in the present: e.g, ysgrifena'r awdwr hwn b5b amser yn dda, this author always writes well, teimlant ambell waith yn boeth, they sometimes feel hot, 477 Very frequently this habitual meaning, whether of verbs denoting an action or a state, is expressed by using the compound form with byddaf, I am habitually: e.g, byddaf yn myned, / am in the habit of goings lit. / am habitually in going {a-going). byddaf yn teimlo, / am in the habit of feeling. 478 As a true Present, the simple form of this tense may also denote what is true*at all times (including the present): e.g, y plentyn yw tad y dyn, the child is father to the man. bid* lawen iach, the healthy man is joyous, (Welsh Proverb.) dihunid a brydero, he that is anxious is sleepless, „ 479 In vivid narration the Present may be used of past events instead of the Aorist: in this use the Present is called Historical: e.g. yna gwelir ef yn rhedeg, then he is seen running, * A Pres. Indie. 3rd S. ending in -id, is sometimes found with this meaning, especially in old proverbs.
(delwedd F7339) (tudalen 156)	156 WELSH SYNTAX (B) As a Future, the Present tense-form is employed like the Future of Greek and Latin: ( 1 ) To mark an action as about to occur, or a state as about to exist, hereafter: e.g. ysgrifenaf, 7 s/ia/J 7urite; byddaf yn ddedwydd, / shall be happy. In the case of verbs of action the Future meaning, especially in Principal Clauses, is often expressed by means of gwnaf, / shall make , followed by a verb-noun; e.g, gwnaf fyned, / shall go lit. I shall tf take a going) similarly in the case of verbs oi perceivifig and thinking, the Future is generally expressed by caf, / shall obtain, followed by a verb-noun: e.g. caf weled, / shall see\ caf wy bod, / shall knoiv. I shall be writing, etc. is expressed by byddaf yn ysgrifenu, etc. NOTB. — I1ie use of gwnaf to express the Future meaning is very common in sentences of inverted order, when the verb-noun precedes the verb which governs it: e.g. myned a wnaf, / shall go. (2) To imply command or promise (in the 2nd or 3rd person, where English has shall, not wilt): e.g. cei fyned, you shall go. ni chei fyned, you shall not go. Hote on the Present Indie, of wyf, 3rd pers. sing, (pen.) The five forms mae, yw, ydyw, oes and sydd which correspond to the English is are distinguished in use as follows: 1. In the sentence of normal order (see §§ 303, 304): — mae is used in affirmative clauses: e.g. mae John yn y ty, lohn is in the house. jw (ydyw) is used in negative clauses when the Subject is definite: oes „ „ „ „ „ „ indefinite: e.g. nkl yw y dyn yn y ty, the tfian is not in the house, nid oes ddyn yn y ty, there is no man in the house. Similarly in interrogative sentences introduced by a, and also after os, f in the subordinate clauses of conditional sentences: e.g, a yw y dyn gartref? is the nian at hotne? a oes rhy wun gartref? is sotneotte at hotne OS yw y dyn gartref, if the tfian is dt home. OS oes rhy wun gartref, if someone is at home, \ The difference between yw and ydyw is mainly one of euphony, but ydyw is I used in preference to yw in answers. 2. In the sentence of inverted order (see § 305): — sydd is used when the Subject precedes the verb in affirmative sentences, j affirmative relative clauses and affirmative interrogative sentences and clauses I introduced by pwy? who ; pa? what?; pa b6th? (or beth?) what thing? | e.g. John sydd yn canu, it is John that is sifiging. j yr hwn sydd yn canu, he who is singing. pwy sydd yn canu? who it singing? I (The reasons for the use of sydd in these cases are given in the Appendix.)
(delwedd F7340) (tudalen 157)	MEANINGS OF FORMS I57 489 1 (ydyw) is employed: — (a) wherever the verb of the sentence or clause is neijatived: e,i. pwy aid y w yn gorfoleddu? who does not rejoice? {b) whenever the Predicate-noun, Predicate-adjective or Predicate-pronoun is placed first: e.g. dyn yw, /te is a man; da yw, he is tood; myfi y w, ii is /. Similarly in questions like — pwy yw y dyn? who is the man? and relative clauses like — yr hwn yw y dyn (where y dyn is dehnite), pwy and yr hwn are treated as Predicate-pronouns. 49Q mae is employed where the verb-noun of a compound lense is placed first. In these cases yn is generally omitted: e.j. myned y mae, he is goin for mae yn myned. Ous. The plural form corresponding to mae is maent; the plural forms corresponding to yw (ydyw) are ynt (ydynt). The Fast Imperfect. 491 The Past Imperfect (Simple Form) has two chief meanings: A) as a true Present of the past; 8) as a Secondary Future (Future of the past): e.g, gwelwn, I was seeing, or I should see. 492 Both of these meanings are meanings of the Present transferred to past time. 493 As a true present of the past the Past Imperfect is employed, like the Past Imperfect of Greek and Latin — (i) To mark an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing: e.g. ysgrifenwn, I was writing (then), rhedwn, I was running ,* awn, I was going „ oeddwn, I was „ gallwn, I was able teimlwn, I felt 494 N.B. — The use of the simple form of the Past Imperfect is not subject to the same limitations as that of the simple; form of the Present; see §§ 473-475. 495 In this sense the Past Imperfect is often used in the description of scenery and localities: e.g. arweiniai y Uwybr i'r mynydd, the path led to the mountain. • 496 In the case of wyf, / am, the form oeddwn, / was, has this meaning; and it is regularly used to make a compound form of the Past Imperfect Continuous: e.g. yr oeddwn yn rhedeg, / was running. yr oeddwn yn tcimlo, f was feeling. 158 WELSH SYNTAX •i97 (2) To mark an action or a state as recurring habitually in the [):ist: e.g, ysgrifenai yr awdwr hwn bob amser yn dda, this writer always used to write well, teimknt iuni)ell waith yn boeth, they sometimes felt hot. 498 Very frequenily this habitual meaning is expressed by using the compound form with byddwn, livas habitually: e,g. byddwn yn myned, I used to go. byddwn yn teinilo, I used to feel,
(delwedd F7341) (tudalen 158)	158 499 (3) The Past Imperfect was the old Indo-European narrative tense, and is so used in some expressions in Welsh, as it also is occasionally in Attic Greek, and, to a much larger extent, in Homer; e,g, wedi myned i mewn, gwelem y dyn ar ei eistedd, after going in, we saw the man sitting, 500 This use of the Past Imperfect is especially common in the case of the verbs gwelaf, 7 see, cly waf, / hear, " and verbs of kindred meaning: e,g, ynghanol hyn, clywn rydwst tu a phen isa 'r stryd, in the midst of this, I heard an uproar at the lo7ver end of the street, Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg. 601 (B) As a Secondary Future, the Past Imperfect is used: (i) To describe a future action or state from the point of view of the past: eg, gwyddai yr ysgrifenwn, he knew that I should write; gwyddai y teimlwn, he knew that I should feel; corresponding in past time to — g\Vyr yr ysgrifenaf, he knows that I shall write \ in present gwyr y teimlaf, he knows that I shall feel f lime. 602 (2) In the Principal * Clause of a Conditional Sentence that speaks of what 7V0uld be ( 355) ' awn yno, pe byddai eisieu, / should go there, if there were need, iQX these uses of the Secondary Future in French, cf. Fr. Gram. 485, 486.) 603 ' — ®" *s meaning is expressetl by means of a Compound Tense, it should be noted that buaswn, the Pluperfect or Secondary Future Perfect form of wyf, is generally employed: e,g, buaswn (not byddwn) yn myned yno, pe byddai eisieu, / should go there, if there were need, * For the Past Imperfect in the Subordinate Clause of a Comlitional Sentence see § 526.
(delwedd F7342) (tudalen 159)	MEANINGS OP FORMS 159 504 Obs. 2. -This tendency to use the Phiperfect form for the Secondary Future seems to have sprung from a desire to avoid the ambiguity that would arise if byddwn were employed, inasmuch as byddwn yn myned might mean / used to go. In present day Welsh the tendency to use the Pluperfect form as a Secondary Future and as a Past Imperfect Subjunctive is very marked. Similarly in Spanish, what was historically a Pluperfect Indicative has now become a by-form of the Past Subjunctive. See Span. Gram. P.G.S. § 503. 505 ' 3* — " '® gwelaf, I srty clywaf, / hear gwn, / know, this meaning is often expressed by means of the Past Imperfect form of caf, / obtain with the verb-noun: e.j, caem weled, we should s£e\ caech wybod, you. would know, 506 Os. 4. — In the case of many verbs denoting an Mtion this meaning is sometimes expressed by using the Past Imperfect form of gunaf, / do, with the verb-noun: e,g, mi wiiavvn fyned yno, pe cawn, / should go there if I were allowed. The Aorist. 507 The Aorist has two chief meanings in Welsh: {A) as a true Aorist; \B) as a Perfect: e,g, ysgrifenais, / wrote or / have written, 508 (A) as a true Aorist: (i) To mark an action or state as simply occurring in the past; this is the commonest meaning of the tense: e,g, gwelais, I saw; ysgrifenais, 1 7vrote\ bum, I was\ teimlais, I felt, 509 As the narrative tense (i.e. as the tense answering the question * What happened next? ' ), the Aorist is used to recount a number of past actions which occurred in succession, by marking them each separately as simply past: e.g. aeth i'r ty a chwiliodd y I'e, he went into the house and searched the place, 510 The Aorist is sometimes used, as in Greek, in an ingressive sense: e.g. wylais, / burst into tears, — Contrast wylwn, / was weeping or kept tveeping. 511 (2) To mark an action as then pastj i.e. as having occurred . before some other action in the past; here English generally has the Perfect Participle Passive with had: • e.g, pan ganodd yr udgorn, cychwynasant, when the trumpet had soundcdy they advanced, 512] N.B. — The English Past Tense of verbs denoting an action is I generally to be translated by the Aorist {e.g, lleferais, I spoke), bur,
(delwedd F7343) (tudalen 160)	160 IVELSH SYNTAX when it denotes past habit or describes the action as then going on, it must be translated by the Past Imperfect: e.g. yna torodd ailan gythrwfl digyffelyb; wylai rhai, gwaeddai eraili, a rhuthrent fel y gallent am y pyrth, then t/ure broke out a great uproar; some wept, others shouted, and rushed, as best they could, for the gates, 513 Obs. — gwncuthum, / did followed by a verb-noun, is often employed to express an Aorisc, especially where the verb-noun is placed first in a sentence or clause of inverted order: e.g. rhedeg a wnaeth, Ju ran, 514 iB) As a Perfect, the Aorist may be used to describe an action as now completed: e.g. bum yn Rhufain, / have been in Rome, deuthum adref, / have come home. gwelais y dyn, / have seen the man. dysgais fy ngwers, / have learnt my lesson. The Perfect. 616 The Perfect meaning is most commonly expressed by means of the Present of wyf, followed by the verb-noun with wedi, after, or by means of bum, / have been, the Perfect of f, followed by the verb-noun with yn, in, to express a Perfect Continuous: * e,g. yr wyf wedi myned, / have gone (lit. / am after going). bum yn myned, I have been going (lit. I have been in going, i.e. in the act of going), 516 Note. — The Perfect forms of af, I go; deuaf, I come; gwnaf, I make \ are now obsolete. The old Present forms darwyf, hanwyf, canwyf, and gorwyf (see Ace. p. 58), were mostly used with Perfect meaning, possibly on the analogy of the Perfect forms of af, deuaf and gwnaf. The Future Perfect. 617 The Future Perfect meaning is expressed by means of byddaf;, I shall be, followed by a verb-noun with wedi, after: e.g. byddaf wedi gweled, I shall have seen. The Pluperfect 518 The Pluperfect form, like that of the Past Imperfect, has two distinct meanings: (A) as a true Perfect of the past (Past Perfect); {B) as a Secondary Future Perfect (Future Perfect of the past): e,g, gwelswn, / had seen or / should have seen. ♦ The Perfect meaning is also commonly expressed by using darfu. See Accidence, § 2Zof. 1
(delwedd F7344) (tudalen 161)	MEANINGS OF FORMS J6I 519 {A) As a true Perfect of the past — The Pluperfect is used to describe an action as completed at some point of time in the past, or a past state as the result of an action completed in the past: e.g, y pryd hynny ysgrifenasai ddau lyfr, af that time he had written two books, buasai yn giaf cyn i hynny ddigwydd, he had been ill before that happened. 520 In Principal Clauses, the Pluperfect meaning is usually expressed by means of a Compound Tense: e.g. yr oedd wedi gweled, he had seen, buasai yn gweithio, he had been working (rare) (Pluperf. Continuous) yr oedd wedi bod yn gweithio, „ „ „ 621 ( As a Secondary Future Perfect — (i) To describe the completion of a future action from the point of view of the past: J J . r yr aethwn (rare) *) he knew that I should 'S- gwy 31 " y buaswn wedi myned, ) have gone, 522 (2) In Principal Clauses of Conditional Sentences that speak of what would have been: faethai > . j [he would have gone, if he '** \ buasai wedi myned, J '\ had been alloived, 523 This meaning of the Pluperfect is generally expressed by means of buaswn, the Pluperfect of wyf; followed by the vertn noun with wedi. For the use of buaswn, cf. § 503. Kote on the parsing of Compoond tenses. 524 The so-called 'Compound Tenses* of Welsh form, strictly speaking, only a portion of a system whereby the verb wyf, followed by a verb-noun with a preposition, is used to express various meanings: e.g, yr wyf yn myned, / am going (lit. / am in goin, „ ,, wedi ,, I have gone flit. I am after going). „ „ ar fyned, I am about to go (lit. 1 am on going). ,, „ am „ I intend to go (lit. I am about goin, ,, ,. heb „ 1 have not gone i}xt. I am without going/. 525 In order, therefore, to keep clearly in view the structure of these modes of expression and the principle upon which they are formed, yn and wedi in * Compound Tenses' should be parsed, not as mere signs of tenses, but as prepositions governing the verb-nouns which follow tbem.
(delwedd F7345) (tudalen 162)	1 62 WELSH SYNTAX MEAiVINGS OF THE MOODS, The Subjunctive Mood. 526 The Subjunctive Mood, so far as it is used in Modern Welsh, is very largely a survival. It has only one special form, namely, that of the Present Subjunctive. The Past Imperfect Subjunctive and the Pluperfect Subjunctive are the same in form as the Past Imperfect Indicative and the Pluperfect Indicative, in all verbs except Vyf and caf.* 527 In Medijeval Welsh and even in the translation of the Bible the Subjunctive was much more frequently used than it is now. Several of the instances where it survives in modern Welsh prose are expressions such as fel y mynno, <is he pleases; doed a ddelo, j come what may; cyn bo hir, before (it shall be) long; costied a j gostio, cost what it may; dy weded a ddywedo, say what he will, j 628 N.B. — Distinguish carefully the use of the Past Imperfect and j Pluperfect tense-forms as Subjunctives from their use as Secondary Futures and Secondary Future Perfects (see §§ 501, 502, 521, | 522). I The chief uses of the Present Subjunctive are: — 529 (i) Like the Latin Present Subjunctive and the Greek Optative, i to express wish: j eg, Duw a'n bendithio 1 Afay God bless us / 530 (2) In Clauses expressing purpose: j e,g, fel y byddo byw eich enaid, that your soul may live. ' modd y caffo hi'r blaen ar lawer o'i chymydogesau, that she may be ahead of many of her neighbours, (Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg.) 531 (3) Occasionally, in negative Noun Clauses after a verb mean ing to command or to beware: e,g, gwel na'th orchfygo, see that he do not overcome thee. 532 (4) In Concessive Clauses after cyd (rare) and after Comparatives of Equality \ . * e,g, cyd gwichio'r fenn, hi a ddwg ei llwyth, though the waggon creaky it carries its load. er pereiddied a chyflawned fyddont, however fragrant and perfect they may be, (Chas. Edwards.) * The forms bawn and caffwn from wyf and caf (see A'cidence §§ I95<s» 263) are employed as follows: bawn is used after pe, if; oni, if nd; fel, so that (in Consecutive Clauses): caffwn is used wherever the clause requires the Fast Imperfect Subjunctive.
(delwedd F7346) (tudalen 163)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 63 533 (5) " Relaiive Clauses and Adverb Clauses of Titue, Place, and Comparison, when the action is to be marked as prospective (implying future contingency*) or general: also not uniVequently in Characterizing Relative Clauses: e.g, abl i bavvb a'i bodlono, sujfidcnt for each is that 'vhich satisfies ( = shall or may satisfy) him, (Prospective Rel. Clause, § 364.) a fynno iechyd, bid lawen, zahfuoever desires healthy let him be Joyful. (General Rel. Clause, § 364.) llvvm tir ni phoro dafad, bare is the land which a sheep does not graze. (Characterizing Rel. Clause, § 364.) nes machludo yr haul, until the sun shall set. (Prospective Clause of Time, § 347a.) Hon fydd y llygoden, pryd ni bo'r gath gartref, the mouse is merry, w////ever the cat is not at home. (General Clause of Time, § 347a.) hawdd cymod He bo cariad, reconciliation is easy wherQit there is love. (General Clause of Place, § 348.) minnau attebaf yn oreu mettrwyf (Gr. Roberts, 1563), / shall answer as best I can ( = shall be able). (Prospective Clause of Comparison, § 359.) pob un fel y gallo aHan o'r Ysgrythyrau Sanctaidd (C. Edwards), each as he shall be able out of the Holy Scriptures. (Prospective Clause of Comparison, § 359.) 534 () Occasionally in Indirect Questions, when the action is marked as contingent: e.g. nid gwaeth imi beth a ddywedo ffyliaid, it makes no difference to me what fools may say. (Morgan Llwyd.) The Imperative Mood. 535 The Imperative marks an action 2&' demanded. Neg. nac (na). It is used: * » (a) In Commands: e.g. dywed, say; na ddywed, say not. {b) In Suppositions and Concessions: e.g. dy weded a fynno, ni newidiant, let him say what he willy they will not change, * It is the contingency of the action that is chiefly suggested by the Suhjunctive in Welsh.
(delwedd F7347) (tudalen 164)	1 64 WELSH SYNTAX THE VERB' NOUN AND VERB- ADJECTIVES. 536 The verb-noun in Welsh, inasmuch as it is the name of an action, is treated in many respects like a noun; but, as it is the name of an action some of its constructions resemble those of the verb. 537 Modern Welsh, doubtless largely influenced in the course of centuries by the practice of translating from other languages, tends to be conscious rather of the verbal aspect of the verb-noun as the name of an action than of its nominal aspect as the nanu of an action. The student of the language, therefore, often finds it difficult to reconcile his treatment of the verb-noun from the point of view of accidence, where it has very largely the construction of a noun, with his inner consciousness of its verbal aspect. The Welshman of the present day is still more inclined to lay emphasis upon the verbal affinities of the verb-noun, owing to the fact that he habitually makes use of the verb-noun in translating the English Infinitive. To the student of language, nothing can be more interesting than the adjustment of the categories of one language to those of another, when the linguistic consciousness is of necessity bilingual. It is always interesting, too, to observe the discrepancies which sometimes arise between the subjective classifications of forms by those who speak a language, and the objective classifications based upon a study of the inherited forms themselves. The verb-noun without a preposition. The verb-noun may stand — 538 I. As the Subject of a sentence: e,g, mae canu da yn werth ei wrando, good singing is worth hearing, ac mae*n ddylgd eu canmawl, and it is our duty to praise them: lit, the praising of them w a duty, (E. Prys.) aeth eu b5d ac aeth eu henwau, their being and their names have vanished. Note. — When the verb-noun is separated by means of a Predicate-adjective from the verb to which it is Subject, the verb-noun does not undergo initial mutation: e, mae yn anhawdd myned, it is difficult to go (lit. going is difficult,) 539 2. As the Object, depending on certain verbs (see § 330, where a list of verbs taking a verb-noun as their Object is given): e,g, gall fyned, he can go; medr ysgrifenu, /le can write.
(delwedd F7348) (tudalen 165)	AfEANlNGS OF FORMS 1 65 540 3. In dependence upon a noun and forming with it the equivalent of a compound noun in English. e.g, amser hau, i/ie time of sowing, ysgol ganu, a singing sciwoL For the initial mutation in *ganu' see §§ 376-379. 52 Sometimes the dependent verb-noun is qualified by an adjective used adverbially: e,g, plentyn newydd eni, a newly born child. dau o bendefigion newydd ddyfod, hvo noblemen just arrived, (Bardd Cwsg.) The noun depending on a verb-noun. Kjrt KSr The analogy of Irish, ihe use of possessive adjectives with the verb-noun, together with the non-mutation of the initixl consonant of a noun depending upon it, all point to the fact that in Welsh such a noun was originally in the genitive case. This was a natural construction when the noun character of the verb-noun was prominent in consciousness, and the forms of the language are a survival from this stage of its history. To the Welshman of the present day, however, in whose mind the verbal aspect of the verb-noun has the greater prominence, the noun following a verb-noun of transitive meaning is viewed more as the Object of a verb than as a noun dependin; on a noun. At the same time, the student should make it clear in parsing that he understands the original construction. 543 A noun depending on a verb noun may denote either the doer of the action expressed by the verb-noun (such a noun being originally a Subjective Genitive), or else the Object of the action (originally an Objective Genitive). If the verb-noun be intransitive, the dependent noun denotes the doer of the action; if transitive, its Object: e,g, cyn dyfod y dyn, before the man came; lit before the man*s coming. cyn gweled y dyn, before seeing the man; lit. before the seeing of the man, , ' • The verb-nouii qualified by possessive adjectives. 644 A possessive adjective corresponds to a genitive case. Hence, before an intransitive verb-noun, the possessive adjective denotes its Subject; before a transitive verb-noun, its Object: e,g, cyn fy nyfod, before my coming, cyn fy ngweled, before I was seen \ lit. before my seeing the seeing of me.
(delwedd F7349) (tudalen 166)	166 WELSff SYNTAX 545 The use of the possessive adjective before a verb-noun of transitive meaning is very common when the verb wyf is followed by a verb-noun with a preposition; see i5 524: e.g. mae riiywun yn ei weied; lit. there is someone in (szin the act of) seeing him, - A A' • sAA { M the man has slain him, mae y dyn wedi ei ladd = 1;/v w / / , ■ ' \\b) the man has been slain. If the person denoted by the possessive adjective be the same as the Subject of the form of yf, we have the second meaning (b) \ if it be different, then we have the first meaning {a), Obs. —Note the use of the posjessive adjective with sefyll, stamiing eistedd, sittings gorwedd, reclining in the following and similar expressions: yn el sefyll, standing*, ar iy eistedd, sit/ing; ar ei orwedd, reclining. The verb-noun with prepositions. 546 Cy means of the verb-noun governed by prepositions are formed participle-equivalents or verb-noun phrases equivalent in meaning to Adjective or Adverb Clauses; see § 346b: e. yn niyned, going; wedi myned, having gone; ar fyned, about to go; gan ei fod, si/ice he is; wedi (iddo) fyned, a/ter he has gone. Obs. — The verb -noun governed by the prep, i, to, and qualified by possessive adjectives is often used to convey a meaning equivalent to that of the Latin gerundive: e.g, mae y dasg i'w gwneyd ar unwaith, the lesson is to be done at once. Employment of gan, dan and yn with the verh-noiin. The accurate use of phrases formed by means of the prepositions 'gan and dan with the verb-noun can only be acquired by observation and practice. 547 gan with the verb-noun is employed ii) such expressions as the following: — {a) aeth y gwr i'r ty, gan dybied fod rhy wun yno, the man wen into the house, thinking that someone was there. (b) gan farw ti a fyddi farw, verily (lit. dying) thou shall di gan with the verb noun generally forms a Present participle equivalent, referring to the Subject of the principal verb, and serves to explain an action expressed by that verb. . In expressions similar to (), gan with the verb-noun has been regularly employed in the Welsh Bible to translate the * Infinitive Absolute * of Helrev, when added to the finite verb for the sake of emphasis.
(delwedd F7350) (tudalen 167)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 167 548 dan with the verb-noun is chiefly employed to form Present participle-equivalents which have a similar force to the predicate participles of Greek (see Gk. Gram. § 324, 4, 5, 6). Such expressions generally irn[)ly, as \xi the case of gan, that the action denoted by the verb-noun is contemporaneous with that of the verb of the sentence, and are especially common when the verb-noun expresses some emotion such as griefs joy fear or the like: — e.g. aeth yno dan ganu, he went there singing, ,, „ „ wylo, „ „ „ weeping. n „ n SO'n n „ » tremi'Ung. „ „ „ chwerthin „ „ „ laughing. „ „ „ gerdded * „ „ „ walking, 549 y followed by a verb-noun often forms a phrase equivalent in force to an Adjective Clause, or to a Predicate-participle (see § 550 foil.) or to an Absolute Clause (see § 561): e.g. dyna ddyn yn x\\tg yonder is a man running {who is running). Verb-noun equivalents of participles as Predicate-adjectives. 550 The place of a Present participle used as a Predicate-adjective is most commonly supplied in Welsh by means of a verb-noun with yn, in; the place of a Perfect participle, by means of a verb-noun with wedi, after, 551 () Vith verbs of * being ' (wyf, / am byddaf, / am habitually) and verbs denoting some modification of beings such as ymddanghosaf, I appear: e.g, y mae yn gweithio, he is working, bydd yn gweithio, he is in the habit of working. yniddengys wedi heneiddio, he appears to have aged. 552 () verbs of 'continuing,* 'holding out' and * wearying ': arhosaf, / remain \ blinaf, / am tired e.g, arhosaf yn siarad, I shall remain speaking. blinaf yn gwaeddi, / become tired of shouting. 553 {f) With verbs of ' perceiving,' * knowing ' and * showing *: e.g, gwelaf ef yn agoshau, I see him approaching. is gwn am neb yn cashau y saw! a*i canmolant, / know of no one that hates those who praise him. dangoswch y bachgen yn rhedeg, shoiv the boy running. * rhedeg, running, recuires the preposition ar, on.
(delwedd F7351) (tudalen 168)	l68 WELSH SYNTAX 554 After the verbs daliaf and parhaf, / continue the verb-noun is usually preceded by the preposition i, to: e,g, daliaf i ysgrifenu, I continue to write. parhaf i weithio, I continue to work, 556 After verbs of * doing well or ill ' and verbs of * rejoicing ' and 'grieving,' the verb-noun is usually preceded by the preposition wrth, by: e.g, yr ydych yn pechu wrth ddweyd celwydd, you are sinning in speaking falsehood, ni Iwyddwch wrth fod yn esgeulus, you will not succeed by being negligent, llawenhaf wrth eich gweled yn iach, / rejoice to see you well. 556 After verbs of ' going ' and ' standing ' the verb-noun generally takes gan and dan (see 547, 548). Verb-adjectives in -edig and -adwy. 557 Welsh has now no participles (though it has participle-equivalents, §§ 546-556). But it has two verb-adjectives, one ending in -edig, the other ending in -adwy. 558 The verb-adjective in -edig marks an action as either {i) done ox (2) do-able (rare). e,g, (i) gorphenedig, yf«/Vtf; (2) gweledig, visible, 559 The verb-adjective in -adwy generally marks an action as do-able like the Latin Gerundive: e.g, annileadwy, that cannot be blotted out, credadwy, that can be believed, canfyddadwy, that can be perceived. In some verb-adjectives, however, such as safadwy, stable and teimladwy, sensitive the ending -adwy seems to have an active force. Many verbs have no corresponding verb-adjectives. The present-stem employed as a?erb-adjecti7e, • 560 * present-stems are employed in Welsh as verb-adjectives corresponding in meaning for the most part to those ending in -edig: e.g. carreg nadd, a hewn stone, bara pryn, bought bread, creigiau llosg, burnt rocks. mynydd llosg, a burning mountain, a volcano, creigiau crog, overhanging rocks, • Similarly:— fel helyg plan | oddeutu glan yr afon, like planted VfiUows (ihottt fhc river bcnk. (f). Prys. )
(delwedd F7352) (tudalen 169)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 69 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THERE WITH. (Sections 561-600 are supplementary to Accidence §§ 130-176). Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. 561 I. When the post-vocalic form of the personal pronoun in the accusative precedes the verb, the Subject of the verb, if pronominal, is rarely expressed: e,g, yno y'm gwelodd, // was there that he saw me (not yno y'm gwelodd ef). 562 2. hwynt (simple pers. pron. 3rd pers. pi.) is now never used as Subject, or after a combination of a preposition with a suffix 3rd pers. pi., or as Object after verbal forms ending in -nt. 563 3- The following limitations to the use of certain forms of the l)ersonal pronouns should be carefully noted: — 664 \a) For the pronoun of the ist pers., if it be the Subject of the verb, the forms fi, fi nnau are employed after verbs ending in d, f, or r; the forms i, innau after verbs ending in m, n, s: e,g. gwelwyd I have been seen; gwelir fif I am seen \ gwelaf fi, I see\ but bum i, I have been] gwelais i, I have seen. (After impersonal forms the pronoun following the verb may be viewed as its Object: see §§ 178, 461). 566 {b) For the pronoun of the 2nd pers. (Simple and Conjunctive) the forms ti, tithau, are employed after verbal forms ending in t: e.g, gwelaist ti, thoti hast seen. - gwelaist tithau, thou too hast seen. 566 (0 But if a verb is preceded by a post- vocalic pers. proa S. i, and a su]3plementary pers. pronoun be added after the verb, the forms i, innau must be employed: e,g. fe'm gwelsant i, they saw me. fe*m gwelsant innau, they saw me also. Similarly, for the 2nd pers. the forms di sCnd dithau must be employed. 667 ( After combinations of prepositions with pronominal suffixes, the supplementary personal pronouns take the following forms: for I St pers. sing, fi, finnau ist pers. plu. ni, ninnau. „ 2nd „ • „ ti, tithau 2nd „ „ chwi, chwithau }) 3rd T, K ef, yntau(m) 3rd „ ,, hwy, hwythau hi, hithau (i)
(delwedd F7353) (tudalen 170)	I70 JVELSII SYNTAX 5C8 4. Sometimes the simple personal pronoun added to a verb, or to a noun preceded by a possessive adjective or to a prei)Osition with a pronominal sutfix is not emphatic. In that case it is an enclitic: e.g. gwelais i = gwelaisi, / sa7c>. Ty nhad i = fy nhadi, my father, arnaf fi = arnan, upon trie, 569 5' y <y% ////« oivn etc. are expressed by adding fy hun, dy hun, ein hunain, etc., to a noun qualified by a possessive adjective: e.g, fy nhy fy hun or fy nhy i iy hun, my o7im house. dy dy dy hun or dy dy di dy hun, thine aivn Iiouse. ein ty ein hunain or ein ty ni ein hunain, our own house. Relative Pronouns. 570 ' 'he relatives of Welsh consist partly of survivals like the proclitics a and yr (y), or ag and ar followed by a, and partly of demonstratives preceded by the article, like yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, or of interrofative forms like pwy bynnag, which, by their frequent association with the old relatives a and yr (y), have ultimately acquired a relative force. Thus the history of these relative; in Welsh is the history of a transference to them of a relative meaning which they did not originally possess.* Such a transference is not unknown in language (e.g. the development of the relative meaning of the English * that ' = * which '), and it was doubtless facilitated in Welsh by the weakness and evanescence of the proclitic relative a. The proclitics a and yr (y), which always preceded the verb, came to be classed with meaningless verbal par- ' tides, and so completely has their relative origin sunk into oblivion in the minds of modern Welshmen, that a before the Aorist may be emphasized and lengthened to express a Perfect: e.g, mi a welais, * I have seen.' Even where yr (y) have undoubtedly retained their relative force in expressions in which yr hwn etc. never were employed, the tendency of a Welshman ignorant of the history of these proclitics is to imagine that yr hwn etc have been omitted. See Appendix. 571 ar, in Med. Welsh or (a), ar (a), is used in General Relative Clauses: e.g, pawb ar a welais, everyone that 1 saw, 572 fl-ffi i* Med. Welsh oc (a), is used chiefly after y faih and y cyfryw, stich after nouns qualified by Comparatives of Equality, and sometimes in General Relative Clauses: e,g, y fath ag a welais, such as I saw. y cyfryw ag oeddynt, such as they were, cystal dyn ag a welwyd erioed, as good a man as was ever seen, pawb ag sydd mewn angen, everyone ijtat is in need. * In such a sentence for instance as — cyfrenwch i*r hwn y derbyniasoch ganddo, give to hi fn from whom you have received yr hwn is preceded not by the preposition of the relative clause, but bv the preposition of. the antecedent.
(delwedd F7354) (tudalen 171)	MEANINGS OF FORMS IJl 573 yr liwn generally refers to a par/ia/icir or iJidividual antecedent: e,g, ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nei'oedd, our Father tu/io art in Heaven. 574 ar, ag", y neb, y sawl and pwy bynnaof are usually general: e.if. gwyn ei fyd y neb sydd foddion, blessed is he that is contented i.e. whoever is contented, 575 yr hyn (like the demonstrative pronoun hyn) generally refers to some fact, circumstance or statement: e,, dywedodd ei fod yn flinedig, yr hyn sydd yn ddigon tebyg, he said that he was iircd which is not unlikely, 576 yr hwn, jx hen and yr hyn are sometimes used as adjectives: e,g, yr hwn ddyn, which man \ yr hon ddynes, which woman; yr hyn beth, which thing. 577 Sometimes pa un (like Breton *pehini') is used for yr hwn, and pa rai (like Breton *pdrd*) for y rhai; but hitherto these forms have been generally avoided by good writers. 578 N.B. — In Relative Clauses, when yr hwn is expressed, the negative is generally nid (ni): where a and yr (y) would be used alone in affirm Uive sentences, nad (na) is used, but nid (ni) is also sometimes found. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives. 579 By their constant use in negative expressions neb, someone and dim, nothings have acquired a negative meaning, like the French aucun, personne and rien: e,g, pwy sydd yno? neb; who is there? no one, beth a wnaethoch? dim; what did you do f nothing. neb corresponds to the Irish nech, someone (cf. Fr. aucun for Lat. aliquis unus, someone), dim was originally a noun meaning *a bit,' as in — y dim lleiaf, the least bit (ci, Latin hilum, *a whit,' from which ne-hilum = nihil, nothing. Similarly the Fr. rien, nothings is derived from Lat. rem, ace. of res, thing), not — any, no, is expressed by yr un: e,g, ni welais yr un dyn, / saiv no man, Dennonstrative pronouns and adjectives. 580 The demonstrative hwn (hon, hyn) is sometimes employed after a noun qualified by a possessive adjective: e,g, fy mab hwn, this my son. hyn and hynny are generally employed for hwn and hwnnw after the nouns peth, thing, and pryd, time.
(delwedd F7355) (tudalen 172)	172 WELSH SYNTAX i31 582 583 584 585 586 The Definite Article. The chief uses of the article are the same as in other languages (especially French, German, and Greek): (i) To mark otf or distinguish particular individuals: e,i. y tri brawd, the three brothers, (ii) To denote the zvhole of a class or species: * e,g. mae y Hew yn greadur ysglyfaethus, the lion is a beast of prey. cofiwch y morwyr, remember the sailors, Welsh employs the article in the following expressions where no article is employed in English: — 1. With the demonstrative adjectives hwn, hwnnw, and the demonstrative adverbs, yma, yna, acw: e.g. y dyn hwn, this man (cf. Gk. 6 ayrjp ovroi), „ f, hwnnw, that man, yma, this man {here). yna, that man {near you). acw, that man (yonder). 2. With certain words denoting fractions, when they denote a definite part of a known or previously mentioned whole: e.g, yr hanntr, a // (sometimes the half), y traian, > drydedd ran, a third, 3. With certain names of places: e.g. Yr Abermaw, Barmouth Yr Amwyihig, Shrewsbury Y Bala, Bala Y Drefnewydd,>Vrzt//V?7«/« Y Rhyl, Jhyl Y Trallwm, Welshpool Y Wyddgrug, Mold n n }) i> )> Yr AfTrig, Yr Aiphr, Yr Alban, Yr Almaer, Yr Amerig, Yr Eidal, Yr Hispaen, Spain Yr India, India Africa Ept Scotland Germany America Italy Yr Iwerddon, Ireland 4. With the names of certain festivals: e.g. Y Grawys, Lent Y Sulgwyn, Whitsunday Y Nadolig, Christmas Yr Ystwyll, Epiphany Y Pasg, Easter 5. In the following idioms (cf. German Gram. P.G.S. § 471): — yn y dref, in town n yr ysgol, in school yn yr eglwys, in church yn y nefoedd, in heaien yn y capel, in chapel ar y ddaear, on earth Similarly i'r dref, to toivn; o*r drgf, from toivn etc. * In Welsh, as in English, the article is often omitted with a plural noun denoting the whole of a class or species.
(delwedd F7356) (tudalen 173)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 73 587 Where a noun is followed by a dependent noun, with or without the article, the first noun does not take the article in Welsh; it is felt to be already sufficiently defined by the dependent noun: e.g, mab y brenin, the son of the king (German, des Konigs Sohn), mab brenin, the son of a king, 588 ote» however, y pen teulu, the hecui of the family where pen teulu is treated like a compound word. Employment of the article with oil and hoU. 5g9 611 is used as a noun meaning whole hence yr oil means tfu whole: e,g, yr oil ohono, the tvhole of it, hoU is an adjective meaning w/iole {entire) all (adj.). e.g, yr hoU fyd, the whole worlds the entire world. yr hoU ddynion, all the wen, Obs. — The Welsh for everyone is pawb I) 19 „ each one „ pob un „ each man y pob dyn AD VERBS. A. The Negatives. 590 nid (nl) is employed in Statements and Questions. 591 nac* (na) „ „ Answers. „ „ „ Prohibitions. 592 nad (na) is employed in negative clauses corresponding to those affirmative clauses in which the verb would be preceded by a or yr (y). In Local Clauses and clauses with yr hwn or y sawl, nid (ni) is generally employed, nad (na) is also employed after OS, as well as in expressions of wish and interrogative clauses introduced by paham? why? 593 To negative individual words in Principal Clau.ses, nid is used; in negative Subordinate Glauses, where the corresponding affirmative clause would have mai, nad is emplpyed (with the omission of mai). 694 In modern colloquial Welsh the negative employed in Statements and Questions takes the form nid (ni) ddim, used in a manner similar to the French ne pas, ne point, not From this construction nid (ni) is frequently omitted: e,g, (ni) fum i ddim yno, I have not been there, * Chiefly before forms of wyf, such as wyf, ydwyf, ocs, oedd. ydoedd.
(delwedd F7357) (tudalen 174)	174 WELSH SYNTAX 595 The expression ddim o, nothin; o/\ has been contracted into nio: .. welais i mo'r dyn, / did not see the man for ni weiais i ddim o'r dyn, I saw nothing of the man. Similarly * ddim ohono ' has become mohono, often contracted in spoken Welsh into mono. Employmeiit of the negative with certain adjectives. 596 The negative is sometimes employed with an adjective as follows: ni waeth gennyf pwy ddaw, / do not viimi who comes (lit. not worse with me who comes), ni wiw iddo fyned, he must not go (lit. not fitting for him to go). Note. — Similarly in Mediaeval Welsh ni moch, tiot soon\ ni phell, not far; ni well, not better; ni mad, not gpod were used like ni waeth, ni wiw in the preceding examples. 597 These instances are perhaps to be explained by an ellipsis of yw, £r, between the negative and the adjective, or by an ellipsis of the old form ys, // ij, before the negative. B. Adverbs of Time. 598 Some adverbs of Time are interesting as preserving old grammatical forms: — e yw, 0' ay i Yizxi old demonstrative meaning this. he-no, to-ntght J yioxy to-morrow (lit. the morning) \ fory is for mory = morg-, akin to the Germ, morgen, Eng. morrow, yn fore, early \ yn hwyr, late > yn is here an old form of the definite article, yn awr, now j e-leni, this year \ e = he, this] lent is from vleni = flynedd, year, y llynedd, last year (lit. the year) for yr flynedd. trannoeth, next day from Lat. trans noctem, over night, trennydd, the day after to-morrow. The origin of the first part of this word is doubtful. tradwy, = the day after trennydd. doe, yesterday, neithiwr, last night echdoe, the day before yesterday; ech is cognate with Lat ex, from, Gk. l, echnos, the night before last, beunydd, daily , for beb-n-dydd; beb = bob for pob, every; n in beb-n is probably a renmant of the old accusative endii.g. gynneu, just now
(delwedd F7358) (tudalen 175)	MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 75 byth, everfor ever referring to the present or to the future. erioed, ever, referring to the past, erioed. stands for er i ( = ei) oed, since his life {bean). In Mediae val Welsh a form ermoed = erm oed = er fy oed, since my life {began) was used. weiihion, weithian, by this iime,{y) weiih hon, this time. eisoes, a/ready, in Mediaeval Welsh =j'tf/, nevertheless. trachefn, mutated into drachefn, again, lit. over her back, for dra ei chefn. In Mediaeval Welsh a corresponding form draegeuyn = dra ei gefn, over his back, was employed. er ys meityn,yr a long time, lit. since the morning: meityn v from the Latin mStuiInus, belonging to the morning. C. Adverbs of Place. 599 The following adverbs of place, which are derived from prepositions by the addition of asutiix, should be noted: — tanodd, underneath from tan (dan), under trwodd, through „ trwy (drwy), through trosodd, over „ tros (dros), over uchod, above =yi\o\., over thee, from uwch, oxter. isod, below = isot, under thee, „ is, under, WORDS REPRESENTING SENTENCES OR PARTS OF SENTENCES. 600 The following words, representing sentences or parts of sentences, are found in Welsh: — wele, behold nachaf (obs.) „ nycha (obs.) „ llyma, here is (rare), for syll yma, look here. Fr. voici. llyna, there is (rare), „ syll yna, look there. Fr. voilL dyma, here „ wel di yma, see thou here. Fr. voici. dyna, there is „ wel di yna, see thou ihere Fr. voilk. dacw, yonder ii „ wel di acw, see thou yonder, Fr. voilk. ef in all these ex- { i'e, yes „ i ef, // is (?) nage, no „ nag ef, not it aie, is it sol », a i ef, is it? onidg, ynte, is it not so?,, o nid ef, is it not I sef, that is, namely „ ys ef, it is. tybed, I wonder, used parenthetically: derivation unknown, do, yes, when the verb of the question is Aorist. naddo, no, „ „ „ ., „ „ „ „ pressions represents the old neuter pronoun S. 3.
(delwedd F7359) (tudalen 176)	176APPENDIX. NORMAL AND INVERTED ORDER. The sentences described in §§ 303, 305 as sentences of normal and inverted order respectively are so described according to their natural classification, from the point of view of Descriptive Grammar, in the mind of a Welshman who foi-ms them at the present day. In modem Welsh prose, good writers, in accordance with the regular practice of the spoken language, have mure and more confined the use of a simple sentence or principal clause of inverted order to those statements or questions in which the words placed before the verb are emohatic. The emphatic words thus standing in the most prominent position in the sentence constitute what Paul, in his Prineiples of Lantptagi, calls ** the psychological predicate," i,e. the words which express the information which the sentence in question is primarily intended to convey. In Mediaeval Welsh, on the other hand, and even later, the Subject of the sentence was not un frequently placed before the verb, even where it (the Subject) had no special emphasis laid upon it. At the present day sentences of inverted order are formed by simple inversion; but it is highly probable that, historically, one of the inherited types upon which they are modelled (at any rate, when the words placed first in the sentence are emphatic) was not itself the product of mere inversion. The use in such sentences of the pre- verbal particles a ( = Bret, a, Com. a) and yr (y) («-Bret. ez (e), Cornish yth (y)), probably in their origin pronominal (see § 167), coupled with the fact that the verb of such a sentence, like that of a relative clause,* stands idiomatically in the 3rd pers. sing., forcibly suggests, as 2uss*f' has pointed out, that the type of sentence in question is parallel in its origin to the Irish construction, in which the sentence as a whole is complex, beginning, with the word *is' ( — Welsh ys, 1/ is) or with a noun standing absolutely. Since ys, in Welsh MSS., is rare before nouns, it is probable, unless we are to suppose the early omission of ys, that Welsh preferred the type of sentence in which the words specially emphasized stood in the absolute construction: e,g, dynion | sydd yma, rather than ys dynion sydd yma. The closer coalescence, in course of centuries, of the elements of disguised complex sentences like these has no doubt ultimately given the sentence of inverted order the aspect of a simple sentence. This view of the origin of these sentences is, however, not entirely free from difficulty. It would be a mistake to suppose that Mediieval Welsh always required the use of one of the particles a or yd (»ydd, modem yr), when the order of the sentence was inverted. In mediaeval poetry, especiidly, ■sentences of inverted order are often found, whose verb is preceded by no particle or by one of the particles ry (Irish ro, Gk. irph) or dy (Insh do). * The use of the form sydd, when the subject precedes the verb, is a further confirmation of this view, sydd being the form of the Pres. Indie. S. 3 of wyf, which is used in a relative clause. t Zeuss, Grammatica Cein'ca {2nd Edit. fp, 926): "Estautemhaecconstmctio sine dubio eadem solutio sententiae, per quam in vetusta lingua hil>ernica vox aliqua cum emphasi proferenda e regular! ordine vocum ad initium transfertur vcrbo suWstantivo praemisso, vel sine eo posita absolute." 176
(delwedd F7360) (tudalen 177)	APPEl/DIX 177 Even in mediaeval prose we occasionally find a sentence of inverted order with ry before the verb, without * a *: e.. coet ryweisom ar y weilgi, ' we saw trees on the sea ' (referring to the ships of Bran), Mab. Rhys-Evaiis. p. 35. In view of these considerations and the general tendency of the earlier stages of language to allow variation in the order of words, together with the face that in Gaulish the Subject seems, in accordance with the regular Indo-European practice, to have generally preceded the verb, it would be rash to assert that simple sentences of inverted order did not continue to exist in Welsh side by side with the complex sentences to which reference has already been made. The student of Welsh historical .Syntax should note carefully all survivals of the Celtic practice, here indicated, of expressing a statement by means of a complex sentence beginning with a form of wyf. rather than by means of a simple sentence in the usual manner of most other languages. The tendency of Welsh, it is true, has been to eliminate or disguise, as far as possible, this somewhat cumbrous mode of expression; but, even in the modern language, there survive several instances of it, though most Welshmen are no longer aware of their history. Such survivals show themselves in the use of mai (in S. Wales taw) before noun and adverb clauses of inverted order, as well as in the forms pe, ift and canys, for. The word mai, now dissociated, in the mental linguistic groupings of Welshmen, from the verb wyf, is identical in origin with the form mae, there is; while taw, the verbal origin of which could only be guessed by a comparative grammarian, had a like meaning, and corresponded to the Irish ta, from the root sta-, cognate with Latin sta-re, to stand. Hence the .sentence gwn ™J > ef oedd yno, meant originally, literally translated, / know it is he that was there. Similarly pe, if stands for peiabeibai, were it so that pe bai would literally mean, were it that he {she or {/) were, and canys stands for can+ys, situe it is. Likewise the Mediaeval panyw, equivalent in force to mai, stood for pan+yw, thcU it is. In reading Mediaeval Welsh prose and poetry, the use of these complex sentences, though even then disappearing, should be carefully noted. Such sentences illustrate sporadically in Welsh a very common phenomenon in Irish syntax. For example, in the story of Kilhwch and Olwen, we have, the sentence — yny uyd kaer uawr a welynt, until they saw a great fort literally, until it is a great fort which they saw. The use of sentences of this kind is familiar as one of the most noticeable characteristics of English as spoken by uneducated Irishmen, and corresponds to a marked tendency of Irish Gaelic. It is not impossible, too, that the French method of beginning questions with 'est-ce que' is a survival of a similar tendency of Celtic speech. ' , In sentences of normal order, the verb is sometimes (chiefly in the colloquial Welsh of S. Wales) preceded by the word fe, a shortened form of efe, used as a formal pronoun (see § 133), where fe probably represents an old neuter pronoun S. 3. In Mediaeval Welsh the corresponding simple form ef is used, in prose with a, in poetry often without a. The following instance illustrates the prose use — ef a dyuu y hiawnbwyll idi, her right mind returned to her. It is not easy to say, in the case of sentences of this kind, whether 'a' was originally used in them or not, since it may have crept in only by false analogy. The underlying principle of the construction is, however, clear enough: the ' ef ' acts the part of a formal preparatory Subject, while the real Subject is put H
(delwedd F7361) (tudalen 178)	178 APPENDIX after the verb in apposition to it, being added as a kind of explanatory afterthought. In other cases the statement begins with a formal Predicate in combination with a formal Subject. For instance, a similar combination is found in the case of sef»ys-4-ef, frequently used in Mediaeval Welsh prose (but rare in poetry) to introduce statements of the following form — sei a oruc ynteu yna i ryuelu amah, this ts (lit. it is) what he then did \ hs /ought (lit. fighting) against ftu Mab. Peredur. sef yw ynteu | owein uab uryen, this is (liL it is) who he is \ Owen son of C/rien, Mab. Owein and Lunet. Here the information which the statement is especially intended to convey is expressed as a kind of afterthought by means of a word or group of words standing in apposition to the formal Subject or Object of the opening sentence. In connexion with the development of the sentence (whether of normal or inverted order), the student of Welsh historical Syntax should carefully ' j observe the use of the pre-verbal particles. In modern Welsh, fe (in S. Wales) and mi (in N. Wales), though probably both of pronominal origin, practically | play the part of pre-verbal particles before a verb which is not in a subordinate; position, while a and yr (y), probably also of pronominal origin, are now mentally grouped as pre- verbal particles, which mark the verb as subordinate, either as a subordinate element of the sentence in which it stands, or as the verb of a subordinate noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause. The student of Comparative Grammar can trace earlier functions of these particles, j especially their relative force; but to those who now speak the language ' they have developed new functions. In Mediaeval Welsh the uses of a and yd»ydd»yr and y before verbs do not always exactly correspond to their uses at the present day. All such differences of usage the student should carefully note, especially the use of ydd (y) before the verb even in a sentence of normal order, a use which now survives only in the case of some forms of wyf: e.g, yr wyf, yr oedd. In the older stages of the language certain other pre-verbal particles were used which have now been lost or obscured. For example, one may note the particle yd (for older yt, and not to be confused with ydyddyr), now represented only by the * yd * of yd* wyf, yd-oedd, etc, and by the * d * in nid (— ni+yd); nad (—na-fyd), ped (— pe+yd), od (=o+yd). Another preverbal particle of frequent occurrence is neu, corresponding in force to the modem fe or mi, and often combined with yd as neud. The particle nu (rare) may be a weak form of neu. In addition to these, the particles rv (= Irish ro) and dy (= Irish do) were once extensively used. Modem spoken Welsh if characterised by an almost complete elimination of prerverlml' particles; a. the most common in Literary Welsh, is almost always omitted, and y is evanescent. In spoken Welsh, the determining factor in the use of the particles which remain, seems to be the prominence or non-prominence of the verb as the leading element in a statement; where the verb takes a prominent position, as in a sentence of normal order, it is preceded by the particle fe or mi; on the other hand, if it be subordinate in its own sentence to an Adjunct, yr (y) is placed before it, and similarly when it is clearly subordinate as the verb of a subordinate noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause. INDEX TO SYNTAX. The references are to the sections except when p. {pae) precedes. A.— ENGLISH INDEX. Absolute Phrases, 361. Accusative of nearer definition, substitute for, 387. Active Voice, with intransitive meaning, 462. Adjective, as Attribute, agreement of, '336; followed by prep. 6, 401; place of, 337. Adjective Clauses, 313, 362-364. Adjective-equivalents, 310. Adjuncts, 307. Adverbs, 5907S99; Negative, 590-597; of Place, 599; Time, 598; Sentence-adverbs, 315 (6); Predicate-adjective for, 324 (4); noun as, 385. Adverb Clauses and Phrases, 346*. Adverb-equivalents, 311. Age, how expressed, 386. Agreement of Adjective as Attribute, 336; of Verb with Subject, 317-323; of Predicate-adjective, 325; of Relative, 363. Although, 358a, 358b. Answers, 286, 287, 600. Aorist, meanings of, 507-513; as Perfect) 514; contrasted with Past Impf., 512. Apposition, 3io(</)« Article, 581-589; with najnes of festivals, 585; with place-names, 584. As if, 360(0. Attributes, 306, 336; noun as Attribute, 338. Cases, substitute for, 372-387. Causal Clauses, 346*, 349< Causal Clause-equivalents, 349b.
(delwedd F7362) (tudalen 179)	179 Clause, Principal, 312; Subordinate, 308, 312. Clause-equivalent, Construction of, 346b; Noun, 367-368b; Causal, 349b; Concessive, 358b; Conditional, 357; Consecutive, 352b; Final, 351. Commands, 341a. Comparative Clauses, 346*, .359a. Complex Sentence, 312, 346a. Compound Subject, 320-322. Compound prepositional expressions, introduced by i, 396. Compound Tenses, parsing of, 524, 525. Concessions, 343, Concessive Clause-equivalents, 358b. Concessive Clauses, 346*, 358a. Conditional Clauses, 346*/) 353-356; OS-clauses, 354; pe-clauses, 355, 356. Conditional statements of possibility, 340, B. Conjunctions, co-ordinating, 314; subordinating, 315. Consecutive Clause-equivalents, 352b. Consecutive Clauses, 346V, 352a; Relative, 364. Dative, " Ethical,*' equivalent of, 391-Deliiierative Questions, Single, 344b; Double, 344c; Dependent, 370b. Dependent Exclamations, 370c, 370*. Dependent noun, placeii 6rst, 383; with initial mutation, 378, 379. Dependent Questions, 370a, 370b, 370'. Dependent Statements, 365 A, 366
(delwedd F7363) (tudalen 180)	i8o INDEX TO SYNTAX Dependent Will-Speech, 366. Distance, how expressed, 455, Equivalents, 308; Noun, 309; Adjective, 310; Adverb, 311. Equivalents of clauses, see Clause- equivalents, ryr-clauses. Time, 347a; Place, 34S; Relative, 364. Exclamations, 345; Dependent, 370C Final Clause-uivalents, 351. Final Clauses, 346'//, 350. /br, 314. Fixed prepositions, verlis taking, 329, 332-Future, Indie, 480-483. Future Perfect, 517. General-clauses, see v-clauses. General Relative Clause, 364. Genitive, equivalent for, 374-383, 392, 398-402; Objective, 375; Possessive, 374; Partitive, 380; Subjective, 375, obs.; of Comparison, 381. '' H<nv brooiiy'' A,St. *' Haw high,'' /S6, ** How lon" 456. *' How old;* AS9' If-clauses, 3467, 353-356; Class A, 354; Class B, 355; General Conditions, 354b. Imperative, 535. Impersonal Construction, 316 (5). Impersonal verbs, 316 (5). Indefinite, 2nd pers. sing., 340 (note 2); Pronouns and adjectives, 579. Indirect Speech,. 371. Interrogative Particles, 283. Intransitive, 304 (note). Inverted order, 305, and Appendix. Local Clauses, 346*, 348. Meanings of forms, 372, foil. Measurement, how expressed, 386. Middle Voice, substitute ft>r, 463-466. Moods, meanings of, $26-535. Negative Commands (Prohibitions), 341b. Negative, 590-597; with certain adjectives, 596, 597. Noun, as Attribute, 33S; depending on a noun, 374-383; depending on a verb noun, 542, 543; depending on a verb, 384-387. Noun Clauses, 365. Noun Phrases, 367. Noun-equivalents, 309. Object, 304, 326; Cognate, 326 (2); single, 304, III., 326-330; two Objects, 304, IV., 331-333; verb-noun as single, 330; verb- noun as one Object, 333; Predicate-noun and Predicate-adjective referring to, 304, v., 334, 335. Objective Genitive, 375. Oratio Obliqua and Recta, 371. Order of words, 303, 305, and Appendix. Participle-equivalents as Predicate-adjectives, 550-556. Partitive Genitive, 38a Passive Construction, 327. Passive Voice, 327, 461. Past Imperfect, meanTngs of, 491-500; as Secondary Future, 501-506; contrasted with Aorist, 512; Subjunctive, 355, 526, 528. Perfect, 514-516. Phrase, definition of, 308. Phrases, Absolute, 361; Noun, 367; Verb-noun, 346I); Adverb, 346*. "Place whence," 453? "where," 453; " whither," 453. Pluperfect Indie. 515-520; as Secondary Future, 503, 504; as Secondary Fut. Perf., 521-523; Subjunctive, 355, 526. Predicate, 301, 304, 37-335 » Second Form, 324, 325; Third Form, 326-330; Fourth Form. 331-333; Fifth Form, 334, 335; Remainder of, 30i» 303* 304.
(delwedd F7364) (tudalen 181)	INDEX TO SYNTAX i8i Predicate-adjective, 304, II.; ajijreement of, 325; for Adverb, 324 (4), Predicate- noun, 304, II. Prepositions, 388. Present Indie, 472; as true Pres., 473-47; as Future, 480-483. " Price," how expressed, 386. Prohibitions, 341b. Pronouns, Demonstrative, 580; Indefinite, 579; Personal, 561-569; Relative, 570-578. Prospective, Time Clauses, 347a; Local Clauses, 348; Relative Clauses, 364. Purpose, 346c/, 350, 351. Qualifying parts of sentence, 306, 307. Questions, 344a-344d; Dependent, 370a. Reflexive verb, substitutes for, 463-466. Relative Clauses, 364. ** Reported" speech, 371. Requests, 339, 34ia343 J Dependent, 366. Sentence-adverbs, 315 (6). Sentence-construction, 316-371. 181 Sentence, normal order of words in, 303; inverted order, 305, and Appendix; Simple and Complex, 312; Analysis of, 301-315; kinds of> 339; words representing parts of, 600. Sequence of Tenses, 369b, 370b, Simple Sentence, 312. Space, Expressions of, 455, 456. Statements,, of ' fact, 340, A; Conditional S., 340 B; Dependent, 365 A, 366. Subject, 301, 303, 304, 316,317-323; agreement of verb with, 317-323; not expressed, 316 (4). Subjective Genitive, 375, obs. Subjunctive, 526-534; uses of, 529- 534. Subordinate Clause, kinds of. 313. Subordinating Conjunctions, 315. Temporal Clauses, 346a, 347a. Temporal Clause-equivalenis, 347 b. Tenses, Meanings of, 467-526; of Indie, 472-525; of Subjunctive, 526. Than if, 346 V/, 360 (2). The more — the vtore, 359a (3). They=.one, 316 (5). Time, 457-460; ** How lonj," 457; ** Time when," 457; **Time within which,'* 460. Transitive, 304 (note). Verb, forming a complete Predicate, 304, I. Verb-adjectives, 557-560. Verb-iioun, 536-556; as Object, 330, 333; standing alone, 538-541; noun depending on, 542, 543; qualified by possessive adjectives, 544, 545; governed by prepositions 546; verb-noun phrase, constru:. tion of, 346b. Verbs of saying, 369a (l). „ thittking, 369a (2). „ perceiving, 369a (3). „ knowing, 369a (4). „ showing, 369a (5). ,, rejoicing, griewngnd won" dering, 369a (6). „ fearing, 369a (7). „ Effort, 369a (9). ,, Will or Desire, 369a (10). in Predicate of Second Form, 324. taking fixed prepositions, 329, 332. Voices, meanings of, 461, 462. Voice, Middle, substitute for, 463- 466. Passive, 327, 461. II >> Wishes, 342.
(delwedd F7365) (tudalen 182)	182 INDEX TO SYNTAX B.— WELSH INDEX. a interrogative), 370a. ac (a), 3x4; in Absolute Phrases, 361. achubaf [rhagj, 332/ addawaf, 330, 333, 369a; [i], 332 rt. addefaf, 369a (i); [wrth], 332 f. adwaen, 349b (note), 367 (obs. ). ag (a), 405; verbs taking, 329 a, 332. ag, in Relative Clauses, 572, 574. agoshif [at], 329 c, ai (interrogative), 370a. ai, ory 314. aie, 600. am, 406; after Verbs of Effort, 368a (2). am ben, 406. am, ifonly ZAfi>*f* am, because y 346* r* ambell, 394. amdan, 406. amddifad [o], 401. amddifadaf [o], 332 b. ami, 394. amlygaf, 369a (5). aneirif [o], 400 (note), angeu loes, 383. anghofiaf, 330, 369a (4). annhebyg [o], 401. anogaf, 333, 369a (10). anobeithiaf, 330. anturiaf, 330. ar, //, 407; verbs taking, 329 b; in Noun Phrases of Request, ar, in Relative Clauses, 571, 574. ar ben, 407b. ar draws, 407b. ar gyfer, 407b. ' " gyfyij 407- ar hyd, 407b. ar warthaf, 407b. arall, 336, 337. arbedaf, 333. archaf, 333. arferaf, 330, 349b (note). argyhoeddaf [o], 332 b, arhosaf, 324 (i). arswydaf, 330. at, 408; verbs taking, 329 , 332 e. atebaf [ij, 332 a, awgrymaf. -n, 369a (i). balch [o], 401. beiaf far]. 329. beiddiaf, 330. bet, 445. beunydd, 598. blinaf [ar], 329. boddlonaf [ar], 329 b, boreu wavrr, 383. brysiaf, 330. bwriadaf, 333, 369a (10), bwyd ddigon, 383. bychan, 336. bygythiaf, 330, 369a (i). byth, 598.
(delwedd F7366) (tudalen 183)	183 cadam, 336. cadwaf [at], 329 c; — Caersalem byrth, 383. caf. 330, 333. 369a (3). 481. cam, 337. canfyddaf, 369a (3). caniataf, 333. cant, can, withy 446. canys, 3x4, and Appendix. caraf, 330. cartref, 454. cashaf, 330. cefnaf [ar], 329 b, ceisiaf, 330, 333. cenfigenaf [wrth], 329 d. clywaf, 349b (note). 369a (3). coeliaf, 369a (2). cofiaf, 330, 369a (4). cychwynaf, 330. chwaneg [o], 400. , chwanegaf [atj, 332 «. chwenychaf, 330. credaf, 369a (2). crefaf, 368 B (2), 369a (10). creir, 324 (2). cwynaf [ar], 329 b, cyd, withy 447. cyd, thoughy 346 g 358a (3). cydymdeimlaf [a], 32Q a, cyfaddefaf [wrth], 332 c, cyfan, 336. [rhag], 332/.
(delwedd F7367) (tudalen 184)	184INDEX TO SYNTAX l8=i merciied rai,;'&', methaf, 330. mewn, 428, 437. mo» 595. model, in?'inal Clauses, 346* d, mwy (o], 400. mynnaf, 330. niynegaf [i], 332 a,
(delwedd F7368) (tudalen 185)	185myrdd [o], 40c (note). nad (na), not 592. nid (ni), 59.0. nac (na), tiot 591. nac (na), tior 314. nag (na), than, 346* h, nacaf, 330. 333. nachaf, nycha, 6oo. naddo, 600. nage, 600. naill ai, 314. neb, 579. neitbiwr, 598. nemmawr [o], 400. nes, in Time Clauses, 346* a; in Consecutive Clauses, 346* e, 352a, 352- neshaf [at], 329 c, neu, 314. nodedig [o], 402. o, frotfit 398-404; verbs taking, 332 b; after words denoting quantity, 400; after adjectives, 401; denoting the agent in verb-noun phrases, 346b. o. »/» 354 (note). o achos, 404. o amgylch, 404. o blaid, 404. o blegid, 404; =for (conj.), 314. o dan, 404. , oddeutu, 404. o fesur, 404. o fewn, 404. o ilaen, 404. o gwmpas, 404, o gylch, 404. o herwydd, 404; for (conj.), 314. o 51, 404. o ran, 404. oddiallan, 404. oddiar, 40 oddieithr, 357. odditerth. 357. odd i tan, 404. oddiwrih, 404, 44 1, 444. oedaf, 330. oes. 4S6, 487. ofnaf, 330, 369a (7). oil. 337. S9' ond, 314. 357 (2). ond odid. 369a (8). onid (oni), interrogative particle, 3701. onid (oni), in Time Clauses, 346* a. onid (oni), in If- Clauses, 346* /, 354, 355-onide, 600. OS, 346*/ 354, 3S<'-OS byih, 354b. osgoaf, 33 J. osiaf, 330. pa, 370a. pa fath, 370fL pa gynnifcr, 370a. paham, 370a. pa le, p'le, 370a. pa sawl, 370a. pa faint [o], 400. pa rai, 577. pa iin, 577. pallaf, 330. pan, in Time Clauses, 346* a» pan, in Causal Clauses, 346* e* paraf, 333, 369a (9). pawb, 589 (obs. ). p6, 346*/, 355. 356;=«'«« «/, 346* g, paid, peidiwch, 341b (2); peidio, 342 (4). penodir,-324 (2). peth, 382; [o], 400. po, 346* h. p5b, 589 (obs.). Prif, 337. prin [o], 401. profaf, 369a (5). pryd, 346* a. pryd bynnag, 346* a. p'un, p'run, 370a. pwy, 370». pwy bynnag, 574.
(delwedd F7369) (tudalen 186)	l86 INDEX TO SYNTAX py» 451- rhag, front, 429; in Finai Clauses, 340* «r: verijs takini;, 332/. rhafjor [oj, 400. rhaijoraf [arj, 329. rhai, 382. rbaid, 369a (8). rhoddaf [i], 332 tf. rhwng, 430. rhwym [o], 401. rhwysiraf, 333. rhyfeddaf (at J, 329 c, 369a (6). rhyfeUdol [o], 402. rhyfygaf, 330. rhyw, 382. Salem dir, 383. sef, 600, and Appendix. Seion sail, 383. serch, though, 346* g* sicr [o], 401. sicrhaf, 369a (9). .sydd, 488. sylwaf [ar], 329 b. synnaf [at], 329 r, 369a (6). talaf [i], 332 a, tan, 41a tan, in Time Clauses, 346* a, tanodd, 599. taw, 346* and Appendix. tebyg [o], 401. teilwng [o], 401. teilyngaf, 330. tlawd, 336. tosturiaf [wrtli], 329 d, tra, over, 452; = exceedingly, 337. tra, in Time Clauses, 346* a, trachefn, 598. tradwy, 598. trannoeth, 598. trefnaf, 330, 333. trennydd, 598. tros, 411. trosodd, 599. truan o ddyn, 399, trwodd, 599 trwy, 412 tuag(iua), 431. tuag at, 431. tybed, 600. tybiaf. 3t>Qa (2). tyngaf, 309a ( I ). uchod, 599. uniij, 337. uwch, 381, 432. wedi, 433; in Time Clauses, 346* «, 347a» (obs. 2). weithian, weithion, 598. wcie, 600. wrth. 357,434; verbs taking, 329 </, 332 . wyf, Pres. Indie. S. 3, 484-490. y lath, 382. yfory, 598. y gan, 397. y n6b, 574. y sawl, 574. ychwaneg [o], 400. ychwanegaf [at], 332 e. ychydig [o], 400. ym, reflexive, 463-466. ym mhen, 436. ym mhlith, 436. ym mysg, 436. ymddanghosaf, 324(1). ymddiddanaf [a], 329 a, ymdrechaf, 330. ymheliaf [a], 329 a. ymladdaf [a], 329 a, ymogelaf [rhag], 329. ymosodaf [ar], 329 h, ymroddaf [i], 329. ymrysonaf [a], 329 a. ymyraf [a], 329 a. yn, in, 435-439; with verb-noun, 549-553. yn (predicative), 304 (note), 324. yn awr, 598. yn erbyh, 436. yn fore, 598. yn Gymraeg, 439. yn hwyr, 598. yn 61, 436. yn tan, 439. . yn ty, 439. yng nghanol, 436.
(delwedd F7370) (tudalen 187)	INDEX TO SYNTAX 187 yng nghylch, 436. in Adjective Clauses, 362 (2); in. yng ntwydd, 436. Noun Clauses, 366; and Apptnuix. ynte, or, 314. yr hwn, 362, 573, 576. ynte = onidS, 600. yr hyn, 362, 575, 576. yr (y)» « 581-59. ysgrifenaf [at], 332. yr (y), preverbal particle, 305 (note), ystyrir, 324 (2). 315 (2); in Adverb Clauses, 346*; yw «ydyw), 465, 4S9. Cutler & Tanner. The Selwood Printinr Works. Froine, and LondoQ.
(delwedd F7371) (tudalen b001)	001pavallel (Bvainmau Series. Editor: E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.Litt., Oxox., Professob of Classics in the University of Birmingham. Publishers: Messrs. Swan Sonnbnschein <k Co., Ltd., 25 Hiqh Sueec, Blovomsbury, London; The Macmillan Co., New York. '" Abnost every (jravimatical system has its rationale,' capable of being comprehended by the mind if the mind is kept steadily to it, and of serving as a clue to the facts; but . . . every one of the grammars following a different system, the student masters the rationale of none of them; and in consequence, after all his labour, he oft&n ends by possessing of the science of gramma/r nothifig but a heap of terms jumbled together in inextricable confusion" — Matthew Arnold. Uniformity of Terminol ygy and Uniformity of Classification are the distinguishing marks of this series; all the Grammars are constructed on the same plan, and the same terminology is used to describe identical grammatical features in diti'erent languages. The terminology employed is such as to command general accept' ance, having been accepted and approved by the Grammatical Society — a society which was formed in 1886 for the express purpose- of drawing up a scheme suitable for use in teaching different languages side by side, and which numbered among its members- many eminent teachers from all parts of the United Kingdom and America. The principle of selection is that the existing stock of grammatical terms is sufficient for its purpose, if icsed economically; and the editor has been a'ble to carry out his scheme without the introduction of new or unfamiliar terms. Those who are acquainted with the chaos which has hitherto reigned, and the bewilderment which is caused to pupils by the gratuitous use of two or three dififerent terms where one would suflGice, will appreciate the labour which has been devoted to the simplification of terminology in the series. But the* editor and his coUaborateurs have not limited themselves to a. reform of terminology. Far more than this has been done. The whole classification of the facts of language for the purposes of Syntax has been rendered more scientific, and at the same time more intelligible, by the adoption of a common point of view; and much attention has been given to the concise and accurate statement of rules, and to the exclusion or subordination of minutias that merely burden without enlightening the pupil. The principle of Uniformity in Grammar, first carried out in the Parallel Grammar Series, has been formally approved and adopted by so high an authority as the German Ministry of Education (Lchrpldn'e und Lehratifgaben, Easter, 1892): its soundness, both
(delwedd F7372) (tudalen b002)	002 scirjticiiic and yrac&icaL luay thereiore be regarded as choroughly •rbiablished. The progress of the idea on che Contineiiii is fully set rorth in an article by Dft. Hormemann in Reins Encyclopddisches Haiidbiick der Pjdagogik (1898, vol. v., p. 232, ff.), where the movenieut is associated with the names of Vogt, Eiohnee, Waldeck, }Jangold, HAKKJi:, VoLLBU£CHT, Heil and Schmidt, Seegeb, Banner md Heinharot. The two last named have produced parallel syntaxes of French and Latin (1895 and 1S96) for the ** Reform -gymnasium " at Frankfort. Holland has now its parallel grammars ji Greek and Latin by Dr. H. Woltjer (1892 and 1894); France its Grammaire Comparee du Grec et du Latin by Dr. 0. Riemann and Dr. H. GoELZER. But at present England is the only country which possesses a complete series of grammars In which these principles are carried out. The Grammars are accompanied by a series of READERS AND WRITERS, each in a single volume, based on the following principles: — 1. The Reader is the centre of instruction. Each passage in it is designed (i.) to have a unity and interest of its own, sufficient to engage the attention of the pupil; (ii.) to exhibit, so far as circumstances permit, one dominant grammatical feature. Forms which cannot be understood grammatically without more knowledge than the pupil possesses at a particular stage are not altogether excluded, but they are treated as isolated words, and are simply translated (without grammatical explanation) in the Vocabulary or Preparations. The Reader thus lends itself to the methodical learning and practising of grammar. Grammatical facts presented in concrete form in an interesting context are easily understood and remembered, and form the basis of that more complete and systematic knowledge '.vhich can only be acquired from a Grammar. 2. The Writer is based upon the subject matter and vocabulary of the Reader t and gives systematic practice in the dominant grammatical feature under consideration. Th6 pupil is early introduced to the writing of continuotLS passages; these are at first built up out of separate sentences of easy construction, but gradually assume the character of connected prose in the proper sense of the term. No meaningless sentences or fragments of sentences are employed. Reading, Writing: and Grammar thus o hand in hand, and the knowledge acquired in each department is immediately utilised in the others. In this point, too, the system worked out by the Editor and his collaborateurs coincides in all its essential features with the best results of foreign experience. 3. The courses are so arranged as to present to the pupil the »mportant before the unimportant the less difficult before the mor difBlcuit. Grammatical details are reserved until the main outline of grammar has been mastered. 4. The terminology and classifications of the Parallel Grammars are emnloved throughout the Readers and Writers,
(delwedd F7373) (tudalen b003)	003 The method briefly indicated above is here applied to all the languajes ordinarily taug'ht in schools, the teaching: of which may thus be orgfanised and concentrated on a unifonn basis. I@ For list of the Grammars and Headers in the Series see pp. 7-15. SELECT OPINIONS ON THE SEEIES AS A WHOLE. '' One of the most pressing needs of the day, in view of the multiplication of school subjects and the increased strain which it puts upon the pupil, is concentration and simplification in the methods of teaching. What we have lost in extension we must gain in intention, as the logicians would say. And among the attempts which are being made to meet this demand, a high place must be accorded to the movement started in this country some years ago for unification in the field of grammar teaching. Grammars are many, but grammar is one; that is to say, though. the varieties of usage in diiierent languages are infinitely numerous, it is possible to treat them from a common point of view — to classify them on the basis of a common scheme of analysis and terminology. The gain to the teacher ought to be enormous. Instead of re-classifying the facts of syntax for each separate language according to the sweet will of the framers of individual grammars, a single classification serves for all the languages to be learned; and this scheme, by repetition in connexion with each new language studied, becomes part and parcel of the mental outfit of the pupil — a solid rock on which he stands firm in face of the bewildering complexities of human speech. The old method involved a continual re-adjustment of the register; and its evils were many, as Matthew Arnold recognized. In our own time a serious attempt has been made to remedy its defects in Professor Sonnenschein's Parallel Chrammar Series."— Literature, 10th Feb., 1900. "We have for some years b6en using the Parallel Orammars and Readers <md Writers intended to be studied along with them. We were led to introduce these text-books horn a sense of the soundness of the educational principles on which they were based; experience has now taught us to value them also for the care and consistency with which these principles are carried out. We are convinced that it is an incalculable gain to the cause of systematic instruction in our school that we are using books which enable us to preserve uniformity in the grammar teaohing of the languages, as .veil as to connect coherently translation and comnosition with this grammar teaching." — The Eev. A. Jamson Smith, M.A., Headmaster oi K.E.S.. Gamp Hill, Birmingham.
(delwedd F7374) (tudalen b004)	004 "The Parallel Grammars English, Latin, Greek, French and Gi-erman, have been used without interruption in this school, each from the time of its publication. These grammars are acknowledged :o be in the front rank as regards scholarship, and they have also the merits of clearness and compactness. The Parallel Method is important as leading to a real grasp of principles and economizing (ihe learner's time. The result of using the Parallel Grammars exclusively has in the case of this school been altogether satisfactory, and where pupils of linguistic talent were concerned, admirably successful." — Edith Hastings, Headmistress of the Wimbledon High School for Girls. "After recommending the Parallel Grammar Series in many quarters, I cannot remember any one who was disappointed, or to whom the working out of the same system through various languages did not come as something of a revelation, for which they were intensely grateful. I am sure that no teacher who had once tried the effect of their arrangement of Conditional Sentences as against the traditional arrangement could be blind to the superiority of the former." — W. H. Sbckbr, M.A., Oxon., Aysgarth School, Yorkshire. '* There can be no doubt that this system, if it can be satisfactorily carried out, will save much time to the teacher and much perplexity to the pupil.'' — P. Giles, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Emmanuel College, and Header in Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge {Classical Beview). ''This attempt deserves all encouragement. It marks a new departure, and is a real advance. Any one of these grammars may be used separately by student or teacher. They may be used with still greater advantage in combination.'* — The late H. Nbttlsship, Corpus Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford. << The recognition of the fact that the fundamental principles of' grammar are common to all languages constitutes a conspicuous merit of Sonnenschein's Parallel Grammar Series.** — Professor Frbdebio Spenoeb, in his Chapters on the Aims and Practice of Teaching (p. 88). ** I welcome the new series of Parallel Gramviars as a real advance in the direction of clear thought, brevity, so far as brevity IS possible, and riddance of that superfluous naughtiness which refuses to call the same things by the same names." — C. Colbeck, M.A., Assistant Master at Harrow {JourruU of Edtication). "1 fully approve of your attempt to introduce something like harmony into the teaching of ancient; and modern languages, and heartily sympathise with the object you have in view." — The late Rev. H. A. HoLDEN, M.A., LL.D., Examiner in London University. ** The series of Parallel Grammars As the first attempt to get rid of the perplexities and misunderstandings arising from the inconsistent terminology employed in the grammars of different languages." — The Bev. J. B. Mayor, Litt.D., late Editor of the Classical Review, ''The idea and principles of this series thoroughly commend themselves to me." — F. Chatterton Richards, M.A., Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford, late Professor of Greek in University College, Cardiff. '' It is with more than an ordinary sense of appreciation that we notioe this really remarkable series of books. The very conception of so novel and difficult an enterprise would in itself be noteworthy. But the conception has been carried out with such signal skill and care, that the result may be said, with no exaggeration, to constitute an epoch in the history of our educational literature. These grammars will, in fact, convert what has been a perplexed wandering through a tangled forest into a secure journey through a well-mapped-out country." — Birmingham Daily Gazette, ** The adoption of uniform methods of teaching must result in an enormous saving of time and energy for both teachers and taught." — Catholic Times. **We have had frequent occasion to express our opinion of the various volumes in this very useful series, and of the general features which characterise them all; their spirit and system are now so well known to all teachers that it is hardly necessary to repeat those observations. The principle of familiarising a pupil with passages for translation before he has mastered many details of grammar, of bringing him to a knowledge of rules through the language from which experience coUects them, rather than equipping him with a mass of words and forms long before he meets them in the literature — this principle is gradually growing to be more and more widely acknowledged as a sound one.
(delwedd F7375) (tudalen b005)	005 ** Few can doubt the very great advantage of having some general principles established, which can be illustrated in different languages, either by way of similarity or contrast. It is on this system of proceeding from the known to the unknown that the Parallel Grammar Series is based." — Edticational Review. FOREIGN OPINIONS ON THE SERIES AS A WHOLE. " This Series is unique in character, so far as I know. We in Germany have nothing similar. At the Berlin School Confereixce ■D<>cember. 1890) Schiller spoke on che poinu, maintaining that we 311 jht to have Parailei Grammars, in connexion with the question lOw instmcrion migiifc be simplified by improvements in method. The new Prussian Scheme of Instruction "ot 1891 lavs it down chat *in the choice of a Latin Grammar attention should be paid feo its beini not too different in its whole plan and construction from •he Greek Grammar which is to be used side by side with it ' (p. 23); and again, 'in the choice of an English and French grammar, care should be taken that they are not too different in their plan and construction, and that the i)crmiaoiou;y be here the same as in other languages ' (p. 37). Though the term ' Parallel Grammars ' is not here employed, yet the idea is the same as that which lies at the basis of the admirable Parallel Grammar Series edited by Sonnensohein. It is his merit to have been the first to carry out with brilliant success the principle of simplifying grammatical terminology, and, above aU, of employing the same terminology in all the languages learned in schools. In my pamphlet called Solved and Unsoioed Problems of Method (Berlin, Springer, 1892), I declared the question of Parallel Grammars still unsolved for Germany, and assigned to Sonnenschein the credit of having solved it for England. I now repeat what I there scdd. We in Germany have only to take the English Parallel Grammar Series as a model, and to learn from Sonnenschein how to construct a similar series for our own country. He has shown that parallelism involves no revolution in terminology, but, on the contrary, that it is possible to make the old established terms serve . the purpose, if they be properly and economically used. The whole system is excellent, and may be most warmly recommended to the attention of all those who are interested in the production of a series of Parallel Grammars." — W. Mangold, Ph.D., Professor in the Askanisches Gymnasium, Berlin (Translated). "An organic unity of Grammars, such as Sonnensohein's series, is as yet lacking in Germany, although it would indisputably be of great service." — Dr. J. Sitzler, in Wochenschrift fur Klassische PhUologie (Translated).
(delwedd F7376) (tudalen b006)	006 "A year ago I expressed my unqualified approval of the ParaUd Grammar Series; since then my admiration for it has only increased, in proportion as I have more fuUy understood the principles on which it is based and their application. Mr. Sonnenschein has deserved well of his country in taking the initiative in this work, which he has succeeded in carrying to a happy issue. Shall we ever have a similar series for our own country? That day, the teaching of languages will have taken an immense step forward." — Dr. J. Keelhof, Professor at the Ath6ne Eoyal, Tongres, Belgium, in Bevtie de Vinstruction jyiiblique (TiBJislated). GREEK. GREEK GRAMMAR. By Prof. E. A. Sonnenschbin, D.Lifct., Oxon., University of Birmingham. 4s. 6d.: or (separaceiy), Accidence (including Supplevient on iiTegnlarities in Declension and Comparison), 2s.; Supplement alone, 6d.; Syntax, 2s. od. '* I hold aad have often expressed the opinion, fchat for Attic Accidence and !vntax yours is absolutely the besc school grammar extant." — Gilbert Iurrvy, T'f.A., LL.D., late Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. have found it singularly interesting, admirable in clearness and throwing rcaJ light (as it seems to me) on some perplexing points of Syntax." — S. H. BuTCHEB, M.A., LL.D., D.Litt., late Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. '*This is far the best Greek Accidence that I have ever had to deal with; the conspectus of the Verbs, each on its own page, is admirable." — The Rev. E. D. Stone, M.A., of Broadstairs, late Assistant Master at Eton College.
(delwedd F7377) (tudalen b007)	007 •• Superior to anything of the kind I have as yet used or seen.'* — W. G. Rush-BHOOKE, LL.M., Cantab., Headmaster of St. Olave's School, London, S.E. " Admirably clear in its arrangement, and, at the same time, comprehensive in its scope. All that is unimportant and exceptional is duly subordinated to the typical and normal forms. The work deserves to be extensively used in all English-speaking countries." — J. E. Sandys, Litt.D., Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. " Admirable both in design and execution: it ought to have a tremendous circulation." — W. Petebson, M.A., Oxon., LL.D., Principal of the MacGill University, Montreal. ** Admirably adapted for teaching purposes. The information is presented in a manner at once lucid and exact, and the student who advances to more elaborate works will find that he has nothing to unlearn." — P. Giies, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Emmanuel College, and Reader in Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge. '* Excellent both in plan and execution. It has the advantage of others in being simple, to the point, and running on a broad gauge line that suits all the cognate languages." — J. Y. Sargent, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. " Distinctly the best Greek Grammar I know for daily use. It is wonderful to find so much information contained in a book of such small bulk, and yet presented in an interesting form. It is an admirable piece of work -and a constant help to the University teacher." — G. R. Scott, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. *< The Greek Grammar (Accidence atid Syntax) has been in use here for eleven years, and we wish to say that we have found it invaluable as combining the most recent results of research into pure Attic forms with an admirable arrangement for practical teaching. Its method and completeness, we have no hesitation in saying, render it superior to any other Greek Grammar for school purposes. The list of irregular verbs and the appendix on accents have proved especiiUly useful." — F. J. R. Hendt, M.A., Headmaster, W. L. Bunting, M.A., E. H. Fdrnbss, M.A., Classical Masters at Bromsgrove School (1904). " It is just the sort of book I believe in for school use. It groups the essentials in convenient order, without verbisige. It deals with facts. It throws the usual
(delwedd F7378) (tudalen b008)	008 ! ito hCToni? relief, and subordinates che excepcionaL It utilises the knowledge of jrammar already actained bv che pupil." — B. I. Wrselxs, President of the JoiveiBity of Oalifomia, U.S.A. '* [ find the Accidence a marvel of oompaocness. I am a thorough believer in riis method of teachins; Greek Grammar to beginners. No wonder Greek studies -jLve CO tight their way, wnen boys are set to learning long lists of exoepcions at .;e outset. The Syntax la iust the thing that is wanted. I am not a disciple of -railelism as seen m some tables of comparison, where everything is saoriftoed : ) a wooden uniformity; but I am in favour of parallel syntax when yon naturally &pply what Latin you know to what Greek you are learning to know. You have certainly hit the mean.'* — H. Wbib Smyth, Ph.D., Professor of Greek in Harvard Jnivorsicy, U.S.A- *'The best book of the kind with which the present reviewer is familiar. . . . Its method is that of the future. The Accideyice combines completeness and accuracy in such a way as to make it indispensable to teacher and learner alike The Syntax marks a new departure from accepted routine: too much praise cannot be bestowed on the method adopted and the excellent manner in which it has been developed in detail. Its framework is a Krrifia is &cl, admitting of improvement without substantial alteration." — The Kev. J. Donovan, M.A., late Professor of Classics in Stonyhurst College {Classical Review). " It is no exaggeration to say that the position of this book is quite unique, . . . For brevity, lucidity, general accuracy, and consistency of opinion, we know of no book on Greek Syntax in English that can be compared to this. Having used the Accidence ourselves for the purpose of practical teaching, we can testify still more strongly to its value. One of its superlative merits is that a student can use it without the aid of a teacher to explain the explanation, and yet, with all this clearness and conciseness, there is a fulness of information which leaves nothing to be desired on any important point." — Educational JReview, " Subordination of detail, clearness of outline, brevity and accuracy in rules— of these a surfeit is impossible, and they are well realised. In Syntax induction has superseded deduction: a group of examples followed, not preceded, by the rule is an excellent inversion of the old system." — Preparatory Schools Revino,
(delwedd F7379) (tudalen b009)	009A PARALLEL OF GREEK AND LATIN SYNTAX. By 0. H. St. L. Eusselii, M.A., Assistant Master at Clifton College. 3. 6. "The leading idea of the work is to present, in columns side by side, the idioms of the two tongues. The provision of a chapter on Bnglish Syntax is a welcome proof that common sense is at length obtaining vogue in the teaching ot the Classics." — Birmingham Daily Post, FIRST GREEK READER AND WRITER. By J. B. Sandys, Litt.D., Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. 2s. 6d ** A most valuable addition to the series. Our examination enables us to say bhat the matter of this volume is most judiciously chosen and arranged, the difficulties carefully graduated, and the exercises much more interesting than it asual in such books. We can warmly recommend its accuracy, careful arrange* ment and admirable simplicity." — Educational Review. " Carefully graduated." — Guardian. ** A distinct improvement on the usual style." — University Correspondence. LATIN. LATIN GRAMMAR. By Prof. E. A. Sonnenschein, D.Litt., Oxon., University of Birmingham. 35.; or (separately), Accidence, Is. 6d.; Syntax. Is. 6d. '• The Latin Accideice of the Parallel Qrammar Series is in use throughom King Edward's School, Birmingham, and the Oreek Accidence on che Glasaic&i side. I am diotinctlj of opinion that one and the same Accidence shouid be prescribed in every school for all forms learning the language, and that the Parallel GrarnnMr Accidences are che right ones to prescribe. Grammatioai cu riosicies arc relegated to their proper place, and the normal inflexions of the languages are presented in a clear and orderly manner without sacrificing practical convenience to the supposed requirements of scientific philology. Whon the Qreek and the Latin Accidence of this series are used side by side, the further economy effected by the parallel system is realized.*'-— B. Gaby Gilson, M.A., Headmaster of the Schools of King Edward VI. in Birmingham, late Assistant Master at Harrow, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. " It is all that might be expected of so accomplished a scholar.'* — The late H. Nettleship, Corpus Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford. " A valuable book. The information is conveyed in language at once terse and lucid; good judgment has been shown in the selection of matter as well as in its presentment; and great care has been taken about the terminology — an imporiant point}." — J. S. Reid, Litt.D., Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. '♦ I consider this Latin Grammar excellent, on account both of the lucidity of its arrangement, which makes it easy to learn, and of the soundness of its principles, which ensures that there is nothing to unlearn." — S. G. Owen, M.A., Censor and Classical Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. •• The whole book is characterised by admirable simplicity. ... It would be difficult to imagine a more pleasant task for a teacher than to have an intelligent class before him, with this book in his hands." — Education. " A student brought up upon the set of grammars to which this one belongs could not fail to have fundamental grammatical ideas very clearly and firmly fixed in his mind." — W. G. Hale, Head Professor of Latin in the University of Chicago {Classical Review). " The best Latin Grammar I have seen." — J. Maolbod, I.S.O., late H.M.I.S., Elgin. FIRST LATIN READER AND WRITER. By 0. M. Dix, M.A., . Oxon. 2s. " The best of all the elementary books for teaching Latin with which I am acquainted." — The late Rev. R. H. Quick, M.A. " May be safely recommended to those who appreciate the importance of not deferring translation till the system of grammar is mastered: it is simple, sound and practical." — Edtication. SECOND LATIN READER AND WRITER. By C. M. Dix, M.A. Is. 6d. *' Makes a very favourable impression, both as a bit of leaching, and aa a Latin grammatical work." -Guardian.
(delwedd F7380) (tudalen b010)	010 THIRD LATIN READER AND WRITER. Bv G. M. Dnc, M.A. " Carries out the principle ot thiR exceiJonc series with remarkable skiU. The wnole book deservM praise for its variety, liveliness, and workable character." — Educationai Review. * Admiranly constructed.'* — Olasgaw Herald, FOURTH LATIN READER AND WRITER (" LIVY LESSONS"). By J. C. NicoL, M.A., Ccancab., late Fellow of Trinity Hall, Headmascer of Portamouth Grammar School, and the Rev. T. Hunter Smith. M.A.. Oxon.. iate Assistant! Master in King Edward's School, Birmingham. 2s. **The selections are good, the notes are useful, and the eighteen pages of * exercises for translation,' are attractive in subject and atyle.**-— Suardian, • " Eminently interesting." — School Board Chronicle, ENGLISH. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By J. Hall, M.A., Headmaster of the Hulme Grammar School, Manchester; Miss A. J. Cooper, F.G.P.; and the Editor of the Sekies. 2.; or (separately). Accidence Is.; Analysis and Syntax, Is, " English appears to lend itself well to the general plan of the series. Both Accidence and Analysis and Syntax have been compiled with careful reference to the highest authorities, and arranged in a manner at once logical and attractive.'* — Education, "Strikingly fresh and clear and sound." — EdiUiational Times, " It is a real pleasure to be able to recommend this work heartily." — Private Schoolmaster. ADVANCED ENGLISH SYNTAX. By C. T. Onions, M.A.. Lond., of the Staff of the Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition, revised, 25. 6d. ** To our thinking ,the most attractive and useful volume yet contributed to the ' Parallel Grammar Series '. . . . [The] sections on Parataxis and Hypotazis are particularly instructive and happily treated. ... It has strong claims to a place on the shelves of every teacher of English who really takes an interest in his subject." — Qvardian. "We must admit that this book is, in many respects, an admirable work, and one that many teachers might derive much benefit from. We do not know of any other work published in England which gves so complete, and, in many respects, so good, an account of English syntax." — Secondary Education, ENGLISH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES. Part I., by Miss M. A. Woods. Is. Part II., by Miss A. J. Cooper, F.C.P. Is. " The definitions are terse and clrar, and the examples, of which there are a great number, seem to be skilfully selected." — University Ccrrcspondent, "The collection of examples for analysis (Part II.), by Miss Coojyer, will be a most effective instrument in the hands of any teacher of English." — Education,
(delwedd F7381) (tudalen b011)	011 STEPS TO ENGLISH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. By Miss B. M. Eamsay and Miss G. L. Kamsay. Vol. I., Elementartj, Is. 6d, Vol. II., Further Exercises. Is. 6d. '* An admirable collection of exercises conscructed on principles the practice of which means the destruction of learning grammar by rote." — Glasgow Heraid. " May do mnch to introduce more satisfactory methods for the early tecbcning of English." — Modem La-nrftLoges. "Cannot fail to aid in achieving the chief end of education — the development of the learner's intelligence." — Literary World. " A class that had worked through this book would find Latin prose much easier than when taught in the ordinary way." — Preparatory Schools*' Review, '*A carefully , designed and thoughtfully written manual, which can be honestly recommended." — The Teacher's Aid. '*Many of the stories are intrinsically interesting and may render the associations of grammar more pleasant than some children find them." — Schoolmaster. " Carefully graded to suit the pupiFs progress." — Educational Review, FRENCH. FRENCH GRAMMAR. By L. M. Moriarty, M.A., Oxon., Assistant Master at Harrow; late Professor of Prench in King's College, London. 3s., or (separately), Accidence, Is. 6d,; Syntax, Is. 6d. " Especial praise must be given to Prof. Moriarty's thoughtful and original book on French Accidence. It has the merit of being the first French Grammar for English use that puts the use of the * Conditional ' in its 'true light." — H. Bradlby {Academy), '* Mr. Moriarty's application of the Parallel Grammar programme to French is carried out in a masterly fashion." — Journal of Education, ** We have tested the roles and index by every means known to us, and they have stood the test exceedingly well." — Guardian, ** Commends itself by the admirable clearness of every paft; the best results may be confidently expected." — Glasgow Herald, PREPARATORY FRENCH COURSE. By Miss A. M. Zwmfei.. Is, 6d, New edition, revised and larIy re-written, 1903. ** A capital book for beginners. . . . The exercises form connected narratives — a decidedly good feature — and the grammatical facts selected are suited to the capacities of young learners." — Guardian, '* The lessons seem characterised by clearness of principle, careful graduation of matter, and fulness of exercises." — Schoolmaster. '* The work of an able teacher." — Modem Languages, ** Cannot fail to be of the greatest utility." — Glasgow Herald,
(delwedd F7382) (tudalen b012)	12 FIRST FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By R. J. MoRtca,. late Assistant Jaster at Clifton, and W. S. Lyon, M.A., Oxon. 25. For Revised Edition of this Work, see below. t* To say chat it is the best with wtiich we are aoqnainced woaid be less than 'Aiz CO itf for it would imply a comparison, whereas ic stands alone, and has she .neric of introducing a syscem so aaturai, and so evidently cne best, that one can mlr wonder chat it has never been worked out before."— Otuaou; Herald, Just published.EV/ FIRST FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By Professor R J. Morich, University of Graz. 2s SECOND FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By Professor P. E. E. Babbier, University College, Cardiff. 2s. " The plan [of basing exercises in writing upon the subject matter and vocabulary of the Reader] is one which cannot be too highly recommended." — Guardian, ** The Writer consists of simple sentences founded on the Reader, a plan of which we have often expressed our approval." — Journal of Education, ** The somewhat complicated task of blending grammar, translation and composition together has been ably performed by M. Barbier, whose little YolimiB we warmly recommend as an excellent exponent of an intelligent system." — Glasgow Herald. THIRD FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By L. Babb4, B.A., Headmaster of the Modem Language Department in the Glasgow Academy. 2s, "The passages are 'skilfully selected to illustrate special points of Syntax * explained in the Grammar." — Guardian, ** M. Barbe has performed his task in a very satisfactory way." — Scholastic Globe, "A well-selected series of most interesting extracts from the best modem authors. The English extracts for translation into French are exceedingly skilful adaptations." — Glasgow Herald, Just published,— ADWMCEl} FRENCH COMPOSITION. By H. E. Bebthon, Hon. M.A., Oxon., Taylorian Teacher of French in the University of Oxford, and C. T. Onions, M.A., Lond. 2s, 6d,
(delwedd F7383) (tudalen b013)	13 GERMAN. GERMAN GRAMMAR. Bv Prof. Kuno Meyer. Ph.D., Universitv of Liverpool. 35.; or (separately), Accidence, Is. 6d,; Syntax, Is, 6d. " Clear, precise and praocicai, and very inviting to the eye/* — Journal of Education. '• Uniformiy good." — Education. ••The German Sy7itax is an exceileuc and scholarly piece of work." — GhuLrdian, '* Great care has evidently been bestowed on the Accidence,' — The late Professor H. Nettleship {Athen£BU7n\, "Dr. Meyer isc mit seiner Arbeit aus der grossen Masse unverdaulicher deutscher Sohulbncher ftir Englander einen tdchtif en Schritt hervorgetreten." — Im Ausland, FIRST GERMAN READER AND WRITER. By the Editor op THE Sbbies. Is. 6d, '*It would be difficult to give too high prai:<e to this book as a book for youtig beginners. In method, arrangement, selection of pieces, and in clearness of print, it is just what an elementary Header and exercise book should be. We know several teachers who are using it, and who entirely endorse our opinion." — Modern Language Monthly, " An admirable bit of work, the pieces chosen being all very simple without being dull or foolish." — Journ>al of Education, ** Fulfils in almost every respect the conditions of a perfect class book for junior pupils in German." — Practical Teacher, SECOND GERMAN READER AND WRITER; By the Eev. W. S. Macgowan, M.A., LL.D., Principal of St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown, Cape Colony. 25. '* Dr. Macgowan has done his part with the same thoroughness as Professor Sonnenschein."— -JbtirnaZ of Education, " The plan of these Readers and Writers has our entire approval." — Ouardian. "There can be no doubt whatever that it (retranslation) materially assists the learner, especially when it is practised in so clear and skilful a way as in this book." — Education. THIRD GERMAN READER AND WRITER. By Prof. Gborg Fiedler, Ph.D., University of Birmingham. 2s. "Sure to be welcomed by teachers and pupils alike, for it will lessen the labour of both, without, in any sense, encouraging careless or slovenly work." — Glasgow Herald. " Fully worthy to take a place in this admirable series." — Modem Languages. *< The English-German Vocabulary is written on very sensible lines, and at once commends itself." — Guardian, " An additional advantage is that all the passages refer to matters of German history or legend, thus, in some degree, interesting the student in the history as well as the language of Germany." — Bookseller, •* A well-designed course." — Scotsman.
(delwedd F7384) (tudalen b014)	14 FOURTH GERMAN WRITER. By R. Gk>RDON Route, M.A., OxoQ., Modem Language Master in Bromsgrove SchooL 25. ■*This Cdxc-book appears m che well-known ParaiUl Graimmar Series. Tha jassagea are, on che whole, well chosen, and are tor the mosc pars of an hiatorioai :acure. We have nocning buc praise for chis well-planned texfi-book." — Teacher'M In preparation,— ADVANCED GERMAN COMPOSITION. By Prof. KoNO Meyer, Ph.D., University of Liverpool SPANISH, WELSH, DANONORWEGIAN. SPANISH GRAMMAR. By H. Butlbb Clarke, M.A., Ozon., Eellow of St. John's College, Oxford, late Taylorian Teaoher oi Spanish. - 45. 6d. ** These books follow the admirable plan laid down for chis series by Professor E. A. Sonnenschein. They are thoroughly and carefully done, and will piove of jbhe highest service." — Scotsman, ** Altogether it would be difficult to find two better books to put into the hflknds of a learner." — Glasgow Herald, ** The well-known method of the series is faithfully adhered to throughoot these works, which are likely to prove serviceable for private students as well ai for schools." — Daily Chronicle. FIRST SPANISH READER AND WRITER. By H* Butleb Clarke, M.A. 28. '* For this book we have nothing but praise." — Literary World, WELSH GRAMMAR. By Prof. B. Anwyl, M.A., Oxon,, University College, Aberystwyth. 6f .; or (separately), Accidence 2s. 6d.; Syntax, 2s. 6d. '* To look for defects in the work of such a capable man as the author is a hopeless task. . . . The work is as perfect as any grammar can well be, and students of Welsh in our secondary schools and colleges will hail its appearance with sincere gratification." — Western Mail {Leading Article). "It seems very clear as well as concise." — D. B. Monbo, M.A., Provost of Oriel College, Oxford, ** It seems to me to be most scholarly, and will give a great impetus to the scientific teaching and understanding of Wel." — T. E. Elus, M.P.
(delwedd F7385) (tudalen b015)	15 DANO-NORVVEQiAN READER. With Grammacicai Outiine. By J. Y. Sakgent, 2kI.A., Oxon., lace Fellow and Tutor of ILagdaJen College, Oxlord. 3s, 6d. The prose pieces have been selected with much care and judgmenc, aud tha English version is boch literal and accurace. . . . Altogether the book seems admirably ritted to fulfil its object, and may be safely recommended." — i'huxrdian. "■ English students of Danish and Norwegisin will find their eiioxts greatly lightened by this book." — Liverpool Post, A good idea well carried out." — Edticational Review, it Single Copies of any volume will be sent post free to any teacher on receipt of half its published price. KEYS to the Latin and German Readers and Writers may be had by teachers on direct application to the publishers. 1905 London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN it CO.. Lto. New York: THE MACMILLAN CO
(delwedd F7386) (tudalen b016)	016A . By Professor SONNENSCHEIN, D.Litt. Oxori. (TWENTY-FIFTH THOUSAND) NOW IN USH IN THE jViANCHESTliR GRAMMAk SCHOOL A Latin Story tor Beginners, with Grammar and Exercises. covcrm<4 the First Tlirec Declensions and the First Conjugation (Active Voicel. Gg*ov\n Sva 2sm Sutiiect to Oiscountm PRO PATRIA Sequel to "ORA MARITIMA." with Grammar and Exercises carrying the pupil to the end of the Regular Accidence. Crown 8yo, 2sm 6d» Subject to Oiscountm RECENT OPINIONS ON THE ABOVE BOOKS.' " I have started my own small boys in Latin with • ORA MARITIMA ' and * PRO PATRIA/ and am delighted with both books; they indicate a method which is attractive to the child without being superficial." — Sir Arthur Hort, .M.A., Harrow School. "T'.ie books are admirable, and under the guidance of a skilful teacher their use in class is followed by excellent results."— Michael E. Sadler, Professor of Education in the University of Manchester. "•ORA MARITIMA' does for Latin what the modern oral methods do for French and German, <*.«., it makes the beginner realise that the language is really a vehicle of expression, whereby cominonsense notions can be conveyed. From personal experience I can testify how a few weeks are sufficient to gain this all-important idea; and it is worth adding that in a school which I recently inspected a small boy of eleven employed his leisure time in working through *ORA MARITIMA ' to the end. and then came to his muster for ihe sequel " PKO PATRIA'. There wa: no need to tell that boy that Latin is something more than a phalanx of declinable nouns and verbs." — Alfred Hughes, M.A, Organising Professor of Education in the University of Birmingham. '* I have had both these books prescribed for use m our earliest standards. They were acknowledged by the Committee which passed them to be unequalled for the interesting way in which they presented the sub.;ect. I think no praise is too high for them." — W. G. Wedderspoon, M.A., H.M. Inspector of European Scl.ools and Training College. Burma. " I have used both ' ORA MARITIMA ' and ' PRO PATRIA ' in my school. They are most excellent. In a long experience I have found * PRO PATRIA ' quite the best book I have ever come across for arousing and sustaining the interest of boys in their elementary stage of Latin translation." — The Rev. Philip Crick, M.A., S. Ronan's, West Worthing. On the seme lines es ORA MARITIMA THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE Being a Greek Story for Beginners, with Notes and Exercises, covering the Regular Accidence, by C. D. Chambers, M.A., Lecturer in Classics in the University of Birmingham, formerly Assistant Master at Bromsgrove School. In this book, as in the Latin volumes 9f this Series, special attention Has been devoted to correctness of idiom in the text. Grown 8vo, 3s* Subject to Oiscountm ••It is a Greek • Ora Maritima '"—Guardian, " Felicitous in desigond able in execution."— /o«ma/ of Education. ** We welcome this book and strongly recommend it to all schoolmasters." — Oxford Magazine, IN PREPARATION.— A German Story for Beginners, by Professor K. Wichma.nn: AM RHEIN London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., Ltd. New York: THE MACMILLAxN CO.

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