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EDWARD
ANWYL’S WELSH GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS (1897 / 1907)
_________________________________________________
(tudalen -)
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen i)
Page i
Parallel
Grammar Series
Edited by E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. Oxon.
Professor of Classics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen iii)
Page i
Parallel
Grammar Series
Edited by E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. Oxon.
Professor of Classics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the
·····
(:ii)
Page ii
Parallel
Grammar Series
A Welsh Grammar for Schools
Based on the Principles and Requirements of the Grammatical Society
by E. Anwyl, M.A., Oxon
Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth
Late Classics Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford
Vice-Chairman of the Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education
Part 1 - Accidence
Third Edition
London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Ltd
New York: The Macmillan Co.
1907
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen iv)
(:iv)
Page iii
FIRST
EDITION: November, 1897
SECOND EDITION: February, 1898
THIRD EDITION: March, 1901
FOURTH EDITION: August, 1907
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen v)
(:v)
PREFACE
The present Welsh Grammar is designed to meet a long-felt want both for a short
practical grammar of the language, and for a condensed and systematic summary
of the results of Modern Comparative Grammar as applied to the study of Welsh.
The Author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to previous Welsh Grammars,
and to the Report of the Committee upon Welsh Orthography, as well as the
writings of Zeuss, Rhŷs and other Celtic philologists.
To Prof. Sonnenschein, the General Editor of the Parallel Grammar Series, the
Author feels that he is specially indebted for the cordial and willing aid
which he has given at all stages of the book’s progress. The Author’s best
thanks are moreover due to Prof. Rhŷs, Prof. Powel, and Prof. John Morris
Jones for their many valuable suggestions and aid in the correction of proof
sheets. To Prof. Rhŷs’ lectures on the Mabinogion at
E. ANWYL
ABERYSTWYTH
The Author has availed himself of the opportunity of a Second Edition, which
has been called for almost immediately on publication, to make a few
corrections and additions.
·····
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen vii
(:vii)
Page vii
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION - Page 1
ACCIDENCE - Page 18
·····PARTS OF SPEECH - Page 18
·····NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES - Page 18
···············Number of Nouns - Page 19
···············Plural of Nouns - Page 20
···············Plural of Adjectives - Page 24
···············Gender of Nouns - Page 26
···············Comparison of Adjectives - Page 30
·····NUMERALS (ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS) - Page 32
·····PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREWITH - Page 34
···············Personal - Page 34
···············Possessive - Page 35
···············Demonstrative - Page 36
···············Interrogative and Indefinite - Page 38
···············Relative - Page 39
···············Definitive - Page 40
·····ADVERBS - Page 40
·····VERBS - Page 41
···············The verb ŵyf - Page 44
···············The verb dysgaf - Page 48
···············Contracted verbs - Page 51
···············The Verb-noun - Page 54
···············Irregular Verbs - Page 57
·····QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS - Page 69
·····PREPOSITIONS - Page 71
APPENDIX - Page 75
·····QUANTITY - Page 75
·····INITIAL MUTATION - Page 76
·····SPELLING - Page 79
·····
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 1)
(x1)
Page 1
INTRODUCTION
::1
Welsh belongs to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages
::2 The Celtic branch falls into two groups : -
··········1 the Goidelic, consisting of Erse or Irish Gaelic, Scotish Gaelic, and
Manx Gaelic
··········2 The Brythonic, consisitng of Welsh, Breton, and Cornish (now
extinct)
::3 The languages within each of these groups resemble one another
closely, but the two groups themselves, in spite of thier kinship, present many
important points of difference.
N.B. - The Welsh with which this grammar deals is that of the Modern Literary
language.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 2)
(x2)
::4
Alphabet
A (a) |
F (ef) |
Ll (ell) |
S (es) |
OBS. - In the Welsh settlement of
·····
::5 On Sounds
Letters are signs of symbols representing sounds.
In Welsh, the symbols used in the written language represent the sounds
of the spoken language far more accurately than in English: ch, dd, ff, ng, ll,
ph, and th, being counted for this purpose as single letters. Welsh may,
therefore, to all intents and purposes, be siad to be phonetically written. The
only letters which have more than one sound are e, u, and y : - e has, in some
diphthongs, the sound of y [In North Wales only], in others the sound o u; y has,
under certain circumstances, the sound of u; and both u and y have in some
words the sound of i.
·····
::6 Classification of Sounds
Articulate sounds are of two kinds:-
I. Vowel Sounds, produced by vibration of the vocal chords, accompanied
by the articulation proper to each vowel.
II. Consonant Sounds, produced by means of the lips (Labials), teeth
(Dentals), palate (Palatals), throat or back part of the palate (Gutturals),
tongue (Linguals), nose (Nasals), or some combination of these parts, with or
without vibration of the edges of the vocal chords.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 3)
(x3)
::7
Comparative Table of Welsh and English Sounds
·····
(b) Simple Vowel Sounds
SOUNDS |
|
ENGLISH
EXAMPLES |
WELSH EXAMPLES |
A-SOUNDS |
|
màmma |
short in màm |
E-SOUNDS |
(i) Open |
wèt |
short in nèrth |
I-SOUNDS |
(i) Open |
bìt (nearly) |
Short in cùro / Long in cûr |
O-SOUNDS |
(i) Open |
hòt |
Short in tòn |
U-SOUNDS |
|
rûle, fool (nearly) |
Long in sŵn |
NEUTRAL VOWEL |
|
misèry |
Short in ffy`ddlon |
Observe that the symbols of a in English man, and of o in
English no (close o); of open o as in cause; of open e as
in there; of close e as in fate, are wanting in Welsh, or
appear only in dialects.
‘Open’ means formed with a wide passage for the voice
‘Close’ means formed with a narrow passage for the voice
·····
(b) Consonant Sounds
SOUNDS |
|
ENGLISH
EXAMPLES |
WELSH EXAMPLES |
LABIALS |
|
bay |
byd |
LABIO-DENTALS |
|
vine |
afon |
DENTALS |
· |
do |
dos |
PALATALS |
SIBILANT |
shoes |
eisio (in some dialects) |
GUTTERALS |
PALATAL |
get |
ger |
LINGUALS |
|
low |
alaw |
NASALS |
|
(wanting) |
mhen |
ROUGH
BREATHING |
|
house |
hen |
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 4)
(x4)
::8 NOTE 1. - y
is pronounced like Welsh u: -
·····(a) In monosyllables: e.g. sŷdd, is; dyn, man; except in the proclitics yr (ydd); y; ys; fy, my; dy, they; and myn, by (used in
asserverations). (A proclitic is a word which has no accent of its own, but is joined
for the purpose of accentuation to the words which follows it)
·····(b) In the final syllable of a word of more than one syllable: e.g.
sefyll,
standing; estyn, reaching; perthyn, belonging
·····(c) In the last syllable but one of a word, before a vowel:
e.g. hyawdl, eloquent; dyall, understanding.
·····(d) In the last syllable but one, or the last syllable but two of
many words, when it is preceded by w: e.g. gwyneb, face; gwyddau, geese; gwyntoedd, winds.
····
::9 NOTE 2.
- In the greater part of mid-Wales and South-Wales u is pronounced as i,
and sometimes as y
·····
::10 NOTE
3. - u is pronounced as i throughout Wales in –
ugain,
deugain,
union,
rhÿwun,
cynnull,
bugail,
duwiol,
annuwiol,
ieuenctid,
diluw,
trueni,
Deheudir,
cuddio
·····
::11 NOTE
4. - y is pronounced as i throughout Wales in - disgybl,
disgyn,
diwyg,
diwygio,
diwygwyr,
dilyn,
gilydd,
megys,
dinystr,
disgwyl,
gyda,
meddyg,
gloywi,
tebyg,
ceryg,
llewyg,
llewys,
plisgyn,
dychymyg,
amryw,
rhywun,
cyw,
yw,
ydyw,
efengyl,
gwylio,
dryw,
cyfryw,
ystryw,
distryw,
heddyw,
benyw,
rhelyw,
llinyn,
menyg,
diddym.
This occurs either
(a) when the vowel of the preceding syllable is i; or
(b) when the y is preceded or followed by g; or
(c) when the y is followed by w.
NOTE 5. - ll seems to be pronounced by
pressing the lower side of the front part of the tongue against the roof of the
mouth and emitting the breath over its sides, without vibration of the vocal
chords.
NOTE 6. - w and i are used both as
vowels and as consonants: e.g., in gwynt and iaith w and i
are consonants
·····
(c)
Diphthongs
::12 1. A
diphthong is produced by running two different vowel sounds together so as to
make a single syllable.
·····
::13 2. The
first of the two vowels of a diphthong may be short or long.
·····
::14 3. The
sounds e,o,y form diphthongs with i,u,w. The sounds i,u form
diphthongs with w. The sound w forms diphthongs with u.
·····
REMARKS.
IN
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 5)
(x5)
::15
Tables of Diphthongs
A-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
ài |
gwaith |
àu |
aur |
àw |
awr |
·····
E-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
àe |
ein |
èu |
gweu |
èw |
blewyn |
·····
I-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
ìw |
lliw |
·····
O-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
òi |
troi |
òu |
o’u |
òw |
dowch |
·····
U-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
ùw |
Duw |
·····
W-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
ŵu |
bwydo |
·····
Y-Diphthongs
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
ỳi (In |
einioes |
ỳu (In |
gweunydd |
ỳw |
bywyd |
NOTE. - yw is not
infrequently pronounced as ow; e.g. Howel for Hywel
·····
OBS. Rules for determining
the quantity of a vowel or a diphthong are given in the Appendix
N.B. -In the sequel, the quantity of only long vowels and diphthongs
will be indicated, where necessary, thus: - tâd, mâe, â.
Short vowels and diphthongs will be left unmarked.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 6)
(x6)
16 17 18 19
20 21 22
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 7)
(x7) 1. ARTICULATION
::23 Care should be
taken to pronounce the vowels, even of unaccented syllables, clearly. The
consonants should be pronounced somewhat more lightly than in English, yet with
perfect distinctness. The long vowels are never diphthongized as they are in
English.
2. ACCENT (TONIC)
(a) Word Accent
::24 1. The Accent or Tonic Accent is the stress laid upon a particular
syllable in a word. As in English, the Accent may be Principal ( ´ ) or
Secondary ( ` ), or the syllable may be unaccented: e.g. bèndigédig,
dì-lywódraeth.
{OUR NOTE: bendigedig = wonderful, dilywodraeth =
ungoverned, uncontrolled}
::25 1. The Principal Accent, in Welsh, almost invariably falls on the last
syllable but one. This syllable is generally called the penult or
penultima; the syllable before it is called the antepenultima, and the last
syllable the ultima.
NOTE. - Some small words (except when emphatic) have no accent: e.g. a, yr, y,
yn, fy, dy, etc. If joined for purposes of accentuation to the word which follows
it, such a word is called proclitic; if joined to the words which
precedes it, it is called enclitic.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 8)
(x8)
Words Accented on the Last Syllable
::26 The accent falls on the last syllable: -
.....1. In words whose last syllable is the result of contraction:
..........e.g. ymdrói (for dró-i); Cymrâeg (for -á-eg); bywhânt (for há-ant).
{OUR NOTE: ystên = pitcher, ystánc = stake, ymlŷn
= it sticks itself, it binds itself, ymwêl = he / she visits}
::27 2. In some words the first syllable of which is ys- or ym-
:
..........e.g. ystên, ystánc, ymlŷn, ymwêl
{OUR NOTE: ymdrói = turn, rotate; Cymrâeg = Welsh
language; bywhânt = they eat}
::28 3. In the emphatic reduplicated pronouns, myfí, tydí, etc. (Rarely
my´fi, ty´di, etc)
{OUR NOTE: myfi = I, tydi = you}
::29 4. In some combinations of prepositions with nouns:
..........e.g. hebláw, isláw, drachéfn.
{OUR NOTE: hebláw = besides, isláw = below,
drachéfn = again}
::30 5. In some English words, as apêl, appeal, and somtiems in
dylêd, debt
Words Accented on the Last Syllable but Two
These are:-
::31 1. Words in which an w`, the remnant of the Old Brythonic
termination, -uos, -uâ, -uon, has become a separate syllable:
..........e.g. méddw-dod, gwéddw-dod, bédw-lwyn. In spoken
Welsh w in such words is frequently elided.
{OUR NOTE: meddwdod = drunkenness, gweddwdod =
widowhood, bedwlwÿn = birch grove}
::32 2. Words ending in l and r after b, d,
or g. Here l and r are practically treated as vowels, or
as consonants accompanied by a very slight vowel sound: e.g. bánadl, ffénestr.
In spoken Welsh they are often elided.
..........e.g. perig (for perygl), ffenest (for ffenestr).
{OUR NOTE: banadl = broom bushes, broom as a
material, ffenestr = window; perÿgl = danger}
::33 3. Certain words borrowed from English, which preserve the English
accent: e.g. mélodi, héresi, philósophi.
{OUR NOTE: mélodi = melody, héresi = heresy,
philósophi = philosophy}
H before the Accented Syllable.
::34 1. When the syllable before that which bears the accent ends i a
vowel, or in m, n, ng, or r, the accented vowel is often preceded
by h: e.g. cenhédloedd, oherwydd, cynghánedd.
{OUR NOTE: cenedl = nation, cenhedloedd = nations;
oherwÿdd = because, cynghanedd = alliteration}
::35 2. As this takes place somewhat irregularly and dialectally, care
should be taken to observe carefully in what words h is thus used.
.........N.B. - For the same use of h before individual words see @68.
The Accent in Compound Words.
::36 1. Most compound words are accented regularly:
.........e.g. try´mlais, blínfyd.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 9)
(x9)
::37 2. In some compounds, chielfy those having for
their first element a prepositional prefix, the component parts have not
perfectly coalesced, and the prefix in consequence bears a strong secondary:
e.g. cy`n-lýwydd, dì-fídio, rhàg-arwéiniad, cy`d-fýned.
(b) Group-Accent
::38 1. Owing to the
tendency in Welsh to rhythmical intonation, the correct pronuncaition of
breath-groups is not easily acqured.
::39 2. This intonation varies very considerably with
different districts, but it usually causes the last syllable of a breath-group
to be pronounced with a higher tone than the rest, while the chief
stress-accent of the group tends to fall upon the last accented syllable.
(b) Thought-Accent
::40 1. The Thought-Accent is the stress or emphasis laid upon a word or
syllable, in order to bring out the meaning of the sentence. In corresponds to
italics in print:
e.g. Dengys ef wybodaeth, ond ei frawd anwybodaeth. ‘He shows knowledge,
but his brother lack of knowledge’.
3. WORD BINDING
::41 (a) Within the breath-group which is the unit of speech, there is no
perceptible pause. Word binding of this kind is common to English and Welsh.
::42 (b) In Welsh, however, the close connexion of the words which form
a breath group, has caused the initial consonants of many words to undergo
phonetic changes similar to those which have taken place in individual words:
e.g. Old Welsh o pen, from a head, has become o ben; just
as Old Welsh aper, estuary, has become aber.
::43 (c) These changes of initial consonants, which play a very
importnat part in Welsh, as in the other Celtic languages, will be given under
“Initial Mutations.” @@57, 58, 59, etc.
::44 NOTE. - In their origin, these changes were phonetic,
but, as is often the case, the working of analogy has played an importnat
part in determining their modern employment.
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 10)
(x10)
PHONETIC LAWS AND
TENDENCIES
Changes of sound are due-
::45 A. To phonetic causes proper, depending on the mechanism of
the organs of speech and hearing. These causes mainly operate in bringing about
assi,ilation:
..........(a) Of vowels to vowels, (b) of vowels to consonants, (c) of
consonants to vowels, (d) of consonants to consonants, all with a view to
economy of effort.
::46 B. To mental causes, whereby one sound is sometimes
substituted for another, when some real or fancied analogy seems to require it,
mainly in order to bring about greater regularity. The mind continually tries
to classify the facts of the language, namely, sounds and forms, on the basis
of certain characteristics,which they have in common. The basis of this
classification often changes, so that what was regular under the old
classification may be irregular under the new, and hence a frwuent tendency to
bring that which is tiiregular into accordance with rule.
Vowel-Changes
::47 The vowel-changes which take place in Welsh may be seen from the
following tables: -
1. change due to the influence of the vowel of the following syllable
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
à |
è |
nant |
nentydd |
{OUR NOTE: nant = stream, nentydd = streams;
gardd = garden, gerddi = gardens; cân = song, or the root of canu
= to sing; ceni = you shall sing; mâen = stone, meini = stones; tâw =
silence, or the root of tewi, tewi = shut up}
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 11)
(x11)
2. change due to the
influence of a lost vowel â
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
ù |
è |
byr |
ber |
{OUR NOTE: byr = short, trwm = heavy;
ber = feminine form of byr; trom = feminine form of trwm }
3. change due to the influence of a lost consonantal i
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
à |
ài |
bychan |
bychain |
{OUR NOTE: bychan, plural: bychain = small; sarff,
plural: seriff = serpent; maen, plural: main = stones; hen = old, hŷn =
older; porth, plural: pyrth = gateway; oen, plural: wyn = lamb; troed, plural:
traed = foot)
4. change in one vowel due to change in that following it
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
à |
ài |
dafad |
defaid |
{OUR NOTE: dafad, plural: defaid = sheep; cwmwl, plural: cymylau = cloud)
5. change due to the simplificarion of a diphthong in an unaccented syllable
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
àu |
è |
caffael |
caffel |
{OUR NOTE: caffael (old form/ caffel = to get;
marchawg (old form) / marchog = knight; busteich, bustÿch = two plural forms of
bustach = bullock)
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 12)
(x12)
6. change due to the
addition of an ending
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
à |
è* |
plant |
plent-yn |
*(only
when the ending contains the vowel i or y). See @47.1
NOTE 1. - In words borrowed from Latin accented â has become àw, and later ô; ê
has become ŵy: close ô has become u:
e.g. ymherawdr (imperâtor), cardod (caritât-em), cŵyr (cêra), urdd (ôrdo).
NOTE 2. - The terminationof borrowed Latin words, like the termination of old
Brythonic words, have now been lost in Welsh.
{OUR NOTE: plant = children, plent-yn = child, mân =
small, man-ach = smaller, gwên =
a smile, gwen-u = to smile, môr =
sea, mor-oedd = seas, bwrdd =
table, byrdd-au = tables, ffŷdd = faith, ffydd-lon = faithful, main =
slim, mein-ach = slimmer, haul =
sun, heul-iau = suns, mâes =
field, meus-ydd = fields, llawr =
floor, llor-io to floor (somebody), buwch = cow, buch-od = cows, llyw =
helm, llyw-ydd = leader, bŵyd = food, bwyd-o =
feed)
Consonant-Changes
::48 1. The consonant-changes of Welsh are mostly of mutes, when
preceded and followed by continuous letters, either in individual words or in
breath-groups. They arise from a tendency to preserve an unbroken continuity of
sound within the word or breath-ggroup. Fro example, a voiceless sound may
become voiced, when it stands between two vowels, i.e. the vibration of the
vocal chords continues, while the consonant is being articulated. If the mute
be already voiced, it tends to pass into the corresponding spirant, i.e.
instead of momentarily stopping the flow of breath, as is done in the case of a
mute, we allow the flow to continue.
::49 2. The consonant-changes of Welsh should be carefully observed, not
only because they illustrate the phonetic tendencies of the language, but also
on account of their practical application in the formation of compound words
and in initial mutation.
::50 3. These changes can often be conveniently illustrated by means of
words borrowed from Latin during the Roman occupation of
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 13)
(x13)
::51 A. Assimilation
of Mutes to Continuous Letters. 1. To vowels.
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
p |
b |
capistrum |
cebystr |
·····
{Our note:
cebystr = halter, pader = Lord’s Prayer, padernoster, llôg = interest, tafarn = tavern, prûdd = gloomy, sâeth = arrow, cŷff = tree stump, câeth = slave; enslaved, addicted, dôeth = wise, pechod = sin }
2. To spirants
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
p |
ph |
is *pen |
ei phen |
*The
precise sound of this sibilant is uncertain. It has now been everywhere
assimilated
{Our note: ei phen = her head, ei thafod = her
tongue, ei
chalon = her heart }
·····
3. To nasals
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
mp |
mh |
tempor- |
tymhor* |
*h
in these words is now fequently opmitted, except on the addition of an ending,
when the syllable which it introduces becomes accented
**Now frequently written ameu {Our note: Now amau}
{Our note: tymhor- (penult form of tymor = season),
cynhen- (penult form of cynne = contention, dispute), canghell- (as in
canghellor = chancellor), ammeu (now amau, = to doubt), cannwyll = candle,
angel = angle}
______________________________________________________________
(tudalen 14)
(x14)
4. To l (lingual)
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
lp |
lff |
Alpinus |
Elphin |
{Our note: tymhor- (Elphin (modern spelling Elffin; nowadays obsolete,
replaced by Alpau), calch = lime, gylfin = beak, callawr = cauldron, swllt =
shilling}
····
5. To r (lingual)
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
||
rp |
rft |
serpens |
sarff |
{Our note: sarff = serpent, parth = part, district, arch =
coffin, torf = crowd, urdd = religious order, arian = silver}
B. Other Changes
::52 1. m has become f : e.g. rêmus, rhŵyf, oar
··········lt has become llt : e.g. altum, âllt
(also ll: e.g. altâre, allawr)
··········lm has become lf : e.g. palma, palf
··········rm has become rf : e.g. arma, arf
··········rl has become rll : e.g. iarl, iarll
··········mn has become rdd : e.g. lam(i)na,
llafn
··········thb has become thp : e.g. daethpwyd for daethbwyd
{Our note: rhŵyf = oar, llat = hill, allawr
(now allaor) = altar, palf = palm of the hand, arf = arm, weapon, iarll = earl,
llafn = blade, daethpwyd = it has been brought}
2. f has been lost in plû for plûf*
f has been lost in llâw for llâwf
f has been lost in câel for cafel
dd has been lost in rhoi for rhoddi
*The loss of final f is one of the most marked characteristics of the
colloquial Welsh of N. Wales.
{Our note: plu= feather, llaw = handcael = get,
receive, rhoi = give}
3. By dissimilation we have caffel for cafel
{Our note: caffel = (old form) (v) get, receive,
(n) acquisition}
4. Initial v has become gw in Welsh e.g. gwener from vener-is
{Our note: Gwener = Venus, Friday}
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Consonant Changes
i Compound Words
::53 1. If
the first element of a Compound be that which gives it its distinctive meaning
- in other words, if it be of the nature of an attribute - the initial letter
of the second element undergoes the changes described in @51, A, 1.
::54 2. The second element of a some few compounds undergoes the changes
described in @51, A, 2.
::55 3. These changes, due originally to phonetic causes, are now
treated as signs of composition, and mustbe made whenever a new compound is
formed:
e.g. arf-bais, coat of arms (from pais)
gwerth-wr, seller, from gŵr
palas-dy, palace, from tŷ
{Our note: pais = petticoat, gŵr = man, tŷ
= house}
::56 4. The spirant change is hown in dy-chryn, terror;
tra-chas, exceedingly hateful, and a few more words.
NOTE:- For the purpose of compostion the voiceless sounds ll and rh are often
voiced to l and r.
Consonant Changes in Breath-Groups
(Initial Mutation)
::57 The Consonant changes which take place in breath groups are analogous
to those, which, in course of time, have taken place in individual words and in
the first elelment of compounds. These changes, like those of individual words
and compounds, are, in their origin, the result of purely phonetic causes,
operating when the consonant at the beginning of a word included in a
breath-group followed and was follwed by a continuous letter. This would occur
for instance in the case of an adjective following a fem. noun ending in â.
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TABLE OF INTIAL MUTATIONS
::58 1.
The unchanged consonant is called the Radical
::59 2. Mutations, from the point of view of sound-change, are of
three types, Voiced, Spirant and Nasal.
::60
SOUNDS |
EXAMPLES |
|||
|
RADICAL |
VOICED |
SPIRANT |
NASAL |
p |
pren |
bren |
phren |
mhren |
b |
baich |
|
faich |
maich |
ll |
llais |
lais |
|
|
m |
mam |
|
fam |
|
*The
sound here lost resembled the soft ‘g’ of German
{Our note: pren = tree, tad = father, cam = step,
baich = load, burden, dyn = man, gwr = man or husband, llais = voice, rhes =
row (of houses, etc), mam = mother}
Employment of the Initial Mutations
::61 (a) Certain types of mutation correspond i usage to each other:
The ‘spirant mutation’ in the case of b, d, g and m corresponds
in usage to the ‘voiced mutation’ in the case of p, t, c, ll and rh.
(b) Where p, t, c undergo the ‘spirant mutation,’ b, d, g, ll,
rh, m undergo no change.
(Except after ni, na, not; here
b, d, g become f, dd, #;
ll, rh, m become l, r, f)
(c) Where p, t, c, b, d, g undergo the ‘nasal mutation,’ ll, rh, m undergo
no change.
Mutation
of p, t, c, into b, d, g
of b, d, g into f, dd, #
of ll and rh into l and r
of m into f
::64 This is the most common form of mutation, and is commonly known as the
soft mutation; for a list of the cases where it occurs, see Appendix
(Initial Mutations).
::69 The following points should be noted at the outset:-
(1) After a verb or noun (including the verb-noun) a pronoun is
mutated.
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